I know ALOT of people missed the first part of the French Revolution, so here it is and I'll upload the rest when we're done.
~Claire
The French Revolution – Evolution of the French State
Three Stages
1. Age of Montesquieu (Checks and Balances)
a. Constitutional Monarchy
b. 1789-1792
i. National Assembly (1789-1791)
ii. Tennis Court Oath
iii. Storming of the Bastille
iv. Declaration of the Rights of man
v. 1791-1792 à Legislative assembly
vi. Two Factions à Jacobin vs. Girodin
2. Age of Rousseau (Age of the Republic) – you can’t have a constitutional monarchy if you cut off the monarch’s head
a. Committee of Public Safety (aka Stasi) à Reign of Terror
i. National Convention (1792-1795)
ii. Oligarchy “Directory” (1795-1799)
3. Age of Voltaire
a. Napoleonic Enlightened Despot (1799-1815)
Louis XIV dies à Louis XV (1715-1774)
- Nobility gains power and influence under Louis XV
- He’s not that interested in running the country (ministers and mistresses have influence e.g. Mme. Pompadour – advised him on foreign policy and who to appoint)
- Parlement is reinstated à High Court
o Power to approve or disprove royal decrees
o Made up of nobles of the robe, not sword (gentry)
- Seven Years War and the War of Austrian Succession
o Wanted to raise taxes, Parlement said no
- 1768 à appoints Rene de Maupeou, chancellor to subdue the judicial opposition
o He abolished Parlement and exiles its members
o Creates new one made of royal officials (who do what the King wants…)
o Outrage in the Philosophes
1774 – Louis XVI becomes king
- Reverses Maupeou’s moves – dissolves new Parlement and reinstates the old one
- Old one is troubles by infighting
Overview of France 1789
- Largest country in the world
- Most advanced, wealthiest, but not per capita (America of it’s day)
- Most exports
- Culture dominated
- Science at the forefront
- Society divided into three medieval factions
Three Estates
1. Clergy – Catholic (exempt from taxes, 1% of the population, 20% of the land)
a. Church men often involved in politics because the king appoints bishops à who appoint lower clergy
2. Nobility – (exempt from taxes, 2-4%, 25% of the land)
a. Retained medieval right to tax their peasants (who also encountered the royal tax as well)
3. Everybody else(Bourgeoisie, Middle class, peasants), owned about 40% of the land and still obligated to their local Corvéeà had to put in so many days a year working for their noble masters and nobles also held the hunting rights on their land (that of the peasants)
a. Church tax
b. Taille (land tax per capita)
c. Income tax
d. Poll tax
e. Salt tax
***Trigger of the Revolution***
- The Middle Class had economic power and they wanted political power to go with it
Americaà fighting a foreign power, France, fighting a domestic power
Everybody had to pay taxes, no exceptions, so nobody had a reason to be upset in that respect of inequality
Letters of cachet – they could grab you and put you in prison without a warrant
Causes of the Revolution
o Middle Class wanted a say, challenged power, fallout from the American Revolution (of they can, so can we)
o French Nobility/ Government helped that Americans (from the 3rd estates pocket) to get one back against the British
1. Ideas – The Enlightenment – social contract, John Locke, Adam Smith, Rousseau
2. Distortion of the three estates
a. Not real representation (5% control everybody)
b. Was there really a huge rift between the middle class and the nobility? (you could buy titles, marriage etc. )
c. Aristocrats came back from America and advocated it in France
3. ***Financial Mismanagement*** (France it Bankrupt, colonial wars w/ England, etc.)
a. The Government couldn’t declare bankruptcy because the money was on the people who weren’t in the government
b. Had no way to create additional income except to raise taxes…and that didn’t go over too well….SOOOOOOO
c. REVOLUTION (!!!)
- Inflation (1730-1780)
o Prices of goods go up by 65% but wages only go up 22%
o Increased taxes ONLY on the lower class
§ Necker tried to get Louis XVI to raise taxes on nobility, he got fired…
- 1787 – Assembly of Notables (Louis XVI)
o Parlement is trying to stop him from increasing taxes
o Notables refuse to give up they exemptions
o Assembly controls finances (controlled by the nobles) Louis Refuses
o Everything controlled by the Estates General
§ Louis refuses, everything is controlled by decree (including income tax)
o Nobles block taxes through Parlement
o Louis tried to exile judges
§ Calls the Estates General into session (1788) and it meets in 1789
§ Louis doubles the number of representatives for the 3rd estate
§ Estates General will vote by estate, therefore the middle class vote will be diluted because they will still only have one vote.
France is currently experiencing the worst depression in Centuries
- 3rd estate refuse to vote
o Declares itself in June to be a national assembly à Louis XVI locks them out of the General Assembly so they go to a tennis court, take the oath where they swear to stay together until they have a constitution
o Louis brings in troops à king +nobles vs. 3rd estate
July 14thm 1789 à storming of the Bastille, not to free prisoners but to get mentions, but their weren’t as many as they thought
Lafayette was the leader
The storming of the Bastille saved the National Assembly
The Great Fear – did not remain contained to Paris
- Lower classes attacked manor homes
- No taxes paid
- Got rid of feudalism
- Everybody is taxes
- Ended things like the special hunting rights
- Peasants became a force for stability
August 1789 – Declaration of the right of Man and Citizen (influenced by America)
- Liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, freedom, and equality, freedom of religion and expression
- Freedom = anything that doesn’t harm anybody else
- Separation of power
- Citizenship for ALL (including women, surfs, etc.)
- National Assembly started to fall apart due to infighting
Bourgeois Phase (1789-1792) – aka The Age of Montesquieu
Crane Brinton – Anatomy of a revolution – modern historians see some value in what he wrote, but modern revolutions tend to work a little differently now
- He borrowed his terms from pathology (revolution is like a disease that spreads)
- Symptoms of a revolution, proceeds to a crisis stage, which ends when the fever breaks
- After the break there is a period of convalescence, sometimes interrupted by a relapse or two before full recovery
Basic Principles
- Only if people from all social classes are discontented
- People feel held down
- People are hopeful about the future but are forces to accept less than what they hoped for
- Growing bitterness between classes
- Social classes closest to one another ten to be the most hostile
- Intellectuals and thinkers give up on society
- Government does not respond to society
- Rulers begin to doubt themselves
- Government unable to support itself or get support from another groups to save themselves
- Government cannot organize its finances correctly
Main reason for revolution: breaded prices went from 50% of their income to 80% of their income in ONE year
Rich people can borrow money…poor can’t
Under all previous Louis’, they never spent even 100% of their budget…under Louis XVI government spending skyrocketed to 160% of their income (!!!)
And for the first time, it's acutally retained some of my outline form... nice
Thursday, 26 November 2009
Monday, 23 November 2009
18th Century Economy and Society
18th Century Economy and Society
I. Agricultural Revolution – started in the 1700’s
a. 1700
i. Artisans vs. peasants – peasants were poorer, worked the land, the artisans were handy workers, failed harvest once or twice every ten years (85% were peasantry)
ii. Increased population – urbanization
b. Open Field System – agriculture was often done openly, no division, farming used to be lord system, this still was, but hand to change that because they were over working the fields
1. They started allowing the fields to fallow, they were in danger of starvation but they had to do it
2. no major boom in production in eastern Europe
ii. Started in England, Netherlands, France
1. Looked to increase yields of crops
2. New methods of cultivation
3. Selective breeding
c. Science and Technology – The Low Countries were big led by the Netherlands – they specialized certain regions to specific jobs
1. Enclosed fields – protect your crops
2. Rotating crops
3. Fertilizer
4. Wider diversity of crops
ii. Dutch became the world leaders in Drainage - Vermuyden
d. England – 14% increase of the number of people who are working the land, yield increase = 300% in less than 200 years
i. Charles Townsend – ambassador to the Netherlands, stole drainage ideas
ii. Jethro Tull - 1674-1741 – invested a seed drill, push for using horses for plowing instead of oxen
iii. Bakewell - was to live stock what Tull was to plants, pioneered selective breeding in England
e. Enclosure movement – 1700’s originally done to increase wool profits, but spreads
i. Large farms vs. small farms
ii. Parliament passes over 3000 Enclosure Acts from 1700’s to the 1800’s
1. Can continue to farm common land, but they aren’t all needed to farm on the big farms Urbanization
2. Women – get screwed, had no more job opportunities on farms, in cities they could either be prostitutes or domestic jobs
3. Gentry – rent out their land, have people work on their land – many struggles between the gentry and the peasants
a. Game Laws - hunting laws, one could only hunt on the land with the owner permission
Traditional View Modern View
Urbanization Affects on enclosure slightly exaggerated, 2/3 of all farmers were landless anyway, before the push for enclosure, hardly anyone else went through the enclosure age as much as England
Poverty
Karl Marx
Agricultural Revolution
iii. Effects of agricultural Revolution
1. Increases population – 120 mil. – 190 mil. (Europe from 1700’s to 1800’s)
2. Urbanization
3. Changes basic village life [role of peasants]
4. Distinctive hierarchy
5. Price of agricultural good goes down better nourishment, more money to spend on consumer goods more demand for consumer goods
iv. Corn Laws – high tariffs on foreign grain
II. Proto-Industrialization (Cottage Industry) – what the women could do
a. putting out of the creation of consumer goods (textiles) “piece work”
b. how does this lead to industrialization? it is more efficient to work in a factory
c. this takes off in England first because of all the enclosure acts
d. in 1500, half of the textiles were produced in the country side, 1600s, it if a much higher %, it will spread to Europe, but will eventually be undermined by inventions
i. Kay -> flying-shuttle – weaver could use just one hand, much faster
ii. Hargreaves – invents spinning jenny
iii. Spinning jenny – creates the pedal for the spinning wheel
iv. Arkwright -> water-frame - improves thread spinning, eventually use steam power for looms
v. Crompton –> spinning mule
III. Atlantic Economy – the economy that went across the Atlantic, between colonies and the mother countries
a. Mercantilism
i. Dominant product – built around sugar- the foundation of the Atlantic economy (either as sugar or run) also indigo, cotton, tobacco
ii. The slave trade also developed to farm sugar NOT COTTON until the 1800’s
1. In the Caribbean (West Indies)
2. Favorable balance of trade allows for more Bullionism. The more you import the more people have to pay you when you can export it again after manufacturing the raw goods into products
3. Most countries gained monopolies over certain product areas don’t have to worry about competition within their countries, can set their own prices if there is no competition and can make more money
4. Countries also imported less so that they had to spend less so they manufactured everything in their countries and colonies and set very high tariffs
5. BUT if every country does this, then eventually trade would fall apart
b. During the 1700’s, GB becomes the main power because they have to best navy in the world which they can use to dominate trade, they also developed the Bank of England in 1694, could distribute capital to businesses
i. Act of Union (GB is created 1707)
c. GB has a more Liberal economy (more free market) compared to its European rivals
d. Navigation Act – control over who how and where they trade, all products coming into the country have to come in on British ships smuggling British monopoly over trading Britain
e. Triangular Trade – England, West Indies, Africa, Massachusetts
f. Letters of Marque – governments gave people permission to check ships (privateers) and when there were no more jobs for them, they turned to piracy
g. The Dutch begin to fade during this time, by the time we get to the 1800’s the Dutch are out of it three wars with England damage them, then the war of the Spanish succession ruins them 1664 – they lost New Amsterdam
i. They turned their focus from trade to banking instead of trading their finance it loaning money create a central bank and the first stock market in Europe create a currency perfect the use of paper currency
h. Slave Trade – intrinsic part of the Atlantic Economy – in the 16 and 1700’s approx. 10 million African slaves will be transported to the New World
i. “Fritish” granted monopolies on the slave trade in their countries
1. Set up forts of the west coast of Africa and took the slaves from other Africans.
2. Eventually, by the 1730’s independent slave traders had control
3. Between 20% and 33% of slaves died during the middle passage
i. “Bubbles” – when economies inflate and then implode
i. South Sea Bubble – in the 1700’s, both Britain and France had very fragile economies because they had been fighting each other. Both governments tired to find a solution to get themselves out of debt
1. Britain – in 1719 they give a company the right to take over their national debt (sell their national debt) South Sea Company
a. They had given the company the monopoly on the slave trade in Latin American – they would gain the interest on the debt
b. The investors in the company were not making the money back fast enough, so the company converts the debt into stock that people can buy…erm…sound familiar?
i. First it gain in value, then it…crashed in 1720. Again, sound familiar? undermined the British governments credibility
ii. Mississippi Bubble – the Mississippi Company was given a monopoly over the French Mississippi area trade with Louisiana
1. They take over French debt in exchange for stock…yeah, ditto stock inflates and collapses in 1720
a. So bad that this is one of the factors that will lead to the French Revolution
j. Colonial War Period (1689-1815) – France and GB, but the French government starts collapsing in 1783
i. Lots of fights in the colonies over territory and maritime issues
ii. France had the largest army on land and Britain had the most effective navy, France tried to enlist Spain as allies, but both Spain and the Netherlands were in decline, essentially these were World Wars
iii. Example: War of the Spain Succession (1701-1713) – France loose, but not only in Europe but also in the colonies especially in Canada, Spain therefore also lose its slave trade in Africa, Britain end up getting all of the northern colonies
iv. War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739) – allowed Britain to send one ship a year through Panama
1. Treaty of Utrecht – Britain could trade with the Spanish in Latin America, but Spain then accused them of smuggling they cut off the captains ear violation of British sovereignty George II declares war on Spain War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – declared a draw…for 6 years
2. 7 Years War (1754-63) aka the French and Indian War – biggest war of the 18th Century, involves most of Europe and it was started by George Washington (Fort Duquesne – aka Pittsburg) British governed by the Whigs, send someone to Pittsburg to control the French, Washington loses, the British take it as an insult and start a war The Whigs are replaced by the Tories, new Prime Minister William Pitt he decides to pursue war on North America defeat Frances Navy on high seas, could no longer attack Britain and were gone a competition --Frances Trade is 1/16th of what it was before, sugar trade gone, control over French ports in India taken over by the British, Britain seizes Cuba and Philippines, war ends in 1763
a. Terms of the Treaty of Paris:
i. France loses all its North American Colonies and everything east of the Mississippi, all go to Britain
ii. France give Spain the Louisiana Territory in compensation for being an ally
iii. France has to accept Britain’s domination in India
iv. Spain is Forced to give Florida to Britain
b. Britain managed to screw the advantage up American Revolution (1775-1783) – they strip France of all its American colonies in the first treaty of Paris, in the second treaty of Paris Britain lose a lot of their colonies after the American Revolution (French helped America in the Revolution
k. Colonial Latin America – Spain and Portugal
i. In the 1700’s Spain are still a large part of the Latin American Economy
1. All the gold is gone, but there still is sugar (Silver deposits in Mexico and Peru) - by the end of the 1700’s they are supplying half the worlds silver
2. Spain is able to recover under Philipp VI and their navy ends up being third after France and Britain
3. The problem with Spain and Spanish Colonies was that there were three levels of society in the New World –
a. Creole – Spanish born in America tried to keep up the Spanish ways of life in the colonies, were the aristocracy (20% on the population)
b. Mestizos – Children born to Spanish fathers and Indian Mothers (30% of Spanish America)
c. Amerindians – native people – hardest labor, Latin American Serfs (40-50%)
d. Some black slaves on the sugar plantations
ii. Portuguese had slaves in brazil for sugar farming (50% of Brazilian population were of African descent)
IV. Life in the 18th Century
a. Marriage 1750 (date because that was the start of the first Industrialization)
i. Nuclear Families – Parents begin to move back in with their children because they were the only people they could depend on (Nuclear = two generations three-generation-household = when grandparents move back in primarily in lower classes)
ii. Before industrialization people tended to marry LATER because children were needed to help and couples couldn’t marry until they could support themselves (often not until parents died), girls needed a dowry, something to bring into the marriage
iii. People often had to ask the local land owner for permission to marry (especially in Prussia and the Germanic lands) if they make them wait until they’re older before they start having children then that controls/limits how many they can have
iv. Most couples had up to six children if they lived to 45 (middle/lower class) child mortality was HIGH (20%, 1 of every 5) in good areas. In poor areas it was 1/3. Even if you survived childhood, your chances of reaching adulthood and reproducing were only about 50%
b. Post- 1750 proto-industrialization
i. Cottage industry
ii. It doesn’t take them as long to become independent so they can marry younger
1. More children
2. Urbanization – people don’t have to worry so much, no more restrictions and checks by the neighbors, not such an intimate atmosphere
3. No longer need to constantly evaluate economic situations so more marrying for love, permission not so needed
4. Increase in bastards
5. Chastity, depending on your class, takes a beating, bit of a social breakdown
6. Lack of illegitimate births in the lower classes because they could now get married
iii. Working in the city wasn’t much better, they were very poor, women were discriminated against
1. Attitude towards children changed
2. Developed more mothering instincts
3. Poor mother breastfed their children for much longer
a. Upper class tend to move away from breastfeeding their own children, instead they hire wet nurses
iv. Infanticide – this was condemned but not all that uncommon especially among the poor
1. Orphanages were created – “foundling hospitals” – the first ones in Paris by 1770 1/3 of the babies in Paris were left on church steps, 1/3 of those were left by married couples who couldn’t afford it, 50-90% of the babies at the hospitals died
c. Child Rearing - changes especially in the lower class
i. Used to be – breaking the child’s will, never got attached because mortality rates were very high
ii. Later- morality rates dropped so they began to establish relationships with their children, children began to leave the home to take on apprenticeships, women had to go into domestic jobs - > often they were abused by the masters, got pregnant, ended up on streets, turned to thievery
d. Education – the idea of mass education begins to take root
i. Aristocracy had a head start
ii. Now in the 1700-1800’s there are special schools “little schools” =elementary education, and that was as far as they got
iii. Everyone got enough education to be able to read the bible, Prussia set an example (1717 compulsory education)
iv. Scotland – 1600 – 1 in 6 could read. In 1800 90%
e. Life expectancy explodes in the 1700’s goes from 25 to 35
i. Better nutrition – potatoes, the upper classes didn’t see a huge gain compared to the lower classes – they eat mainly meat, very few vegetables
ii. Better sanitation – small pox eradicated Edward Jenner (discovered that if you get cow pox you don’t get small pox), lack of plague
iii. Better clothes
iv. Improvements in housing - improvements in ventilation, creation of the first mental hospital
f. Religious reforms
i. Pietism – put the emotion back into religion, wanted to see enthusiasm in prayer and preaching – wanted to have more participation, bibles reading and study and channeling these ideas into their everyday lives (Germany)
ii. John Wesley – (England 1703-1791) – Methodist – influenced by Pietism – he was concerned that people were too complacent - most enlightenment people were deists, he didn’t like this. He takes his message to the common people, to the fields, to large numbers of people, also rejects the Calvinists (Predestination) as well as the deist if you wanted it and worked for it you could save your soul
I. Agricultural Revolution – started in the 1700’s
a. 1700
i. Artisans vs. peasants – peasants were poorer, worked the land, the artisans were handy workers, failed harvest once or twice every ten years (85% were peasantry)
ii. Increased population – urbanization
b. Open Field System – agriculture was often done openly, no division, farming used to be lord system, this still was, but hand to change that because they were over working the fields
1. They started allowing the fields to fallow, they were in danger of starvation but they had to do it
2. no major boom in production in eastern Europe
ii. Started in England, Netherlands, France
1. Looked to increase yields of crops
2. New methods of cultivation
3. Selective breeding
c. Science and Technology – The Low Countries were big led by the Netherlands – they specialized certain regions to specific jobs
1. Enclosed fields – protect your crops
2. Rotating crops
3. Fertilizer
4. Wider diversity of crops
ii. Dutch became the world leaders in Drainage - Vermuyden
d. England – 14% increase of the number of people who are working the land, yield increase = 300% in less than 200 years
i. Charles Townsend – ambassador to the Netherlands, stole drainage ideas
ii. Jethro Tull - 1674-1741 – invested a seed drill, push for using horses for plowing instead of oxen
iii. Bakewell - was to live stock what Tull was to plants, pioneered selective breeding in England
e. Enclosure movement – 1700’s originally done to increase wool profits, but spreads
i. Large farms vs. small farms
ii. Parliament passes over 3000 Enclosure Acts from 1700’s to the 1800’s
1. Can continue to farm common land, but they aren’t all needed to farm on the big farms Urbanization
2. Women – get screwed, had no more job opportunities on farms, in cities they could either be prostitutes or domestic jobs
3. Gentry – rent out their land, have people work on their land – many struggles between the gentry and the peasants
a. Game Laws - hunting laws, one could only hunt on the land with the owner permission
Traditional View Modern View
Urbanization Affects on enclosure slightly exaggerated, 2/3 of all farmers were landless anyway, before the push for enclosure, hardly anyone else went through the enclosure age as much as England
Poverty
Karl Marx
Agricultural Revolution
iii. Effects of agricultural Revolution
1. Increases population – 120 mil. – 190 mil. (Europe from 1700’s to 1800’s)
2. Urbanization
3. Changes basic village life [role of peasants]
4. Distinctive hierarchy
5. Price of agricultural good goes down better nourishment, more money to spend on consumer goods more demand for consumer goods
iv. Corn Laws – high tariffs on foreign grain
II. Proto-Industrialization (Cottage Industry) – what the women could do
a. putting out of the creation of consumer goods (textiles) “piece work”
b. how does this lead to industrialization? it is more efficient to work in a factory
c. this takes off in England first because of all the enclosure acts
d. in 1500, half of the textiles were produced in the country side, 1600s, it if a much higher %, it will spread to Europe, but will eventually be undermined by inventions
i. Kay -> flying-shuttle – weaver could use just one hand, much faster
ii. Hargreaves – invents spinning jenny
iii. Spinning jenny – creates the pedal for the spinning wheel
iv. Arkwright -> water-frame - improves thread spinning, eventually use steam power for looms
v. Crompton –> spinning mule
III. Atlantic Economy – the economy that went across the Atlantic, between colonies and the mother countries
a. Mercantilism
i. Dominant product – built around sugar- the foundation of the Atlantic economy (either as sugar or run) also indigo, cotton, tobacco
ii. The slave trade also developed to farm sugar NOT COTTON until the 1800’s
1. In the Caribbean (West Indies)
2. Favorable balance of trade allows for more Bullionism. The more you import the more people have to pay you when you can export it again after manufacturing the raw goods into products
3. Most countries gained monopolies over certain product areas don’t have to worry about competition within their countries, can set their own prices if there is no competition and can make more money
4. Countries also imported less so that they had to spend less so they manufactured everything in their countries and colonies and set very high tariffs
5. BUT if every country does this, then eventually trade would fall apart
b. During the 1700’s, GB becomes the main power because they have to best navy in the world which they can use to dominate trade, they also developed the Bank of England in 1694, could distribute capital to businesses
i. Act of Union (GB is created 1707)
c. GB has a more Liberal economy (more free market) compared to its European rivals
d. Navigation Act – control over who how and where they trade, all products coming into the country have to come in on British ships smuggling British monopoly over trading Britain
e. Triangular Trade – England, West Indies, Africa, Massachusetts
f. Letters of Marque – governments gave people permission to check ships (privateers) and when there were no more jobs for them, they turned to piracy
g. The Dutch begin to fade during this time, by the time we get to the 1800’s the Dutch are out of it three wars with England damage them, then the war of the Spanish succession ruins them 1664 – they lost New Amsterdam
i. They turned their focus from trade to banking instead of trading their finance it loaning money create a central bank and the first stock market in Europe create a currency perfect the use of paper currency
h. Slave Trade – intrinsic part of the Atlantic Economy – in the 16 and 1700’s approx. 10 million African slaves will be transported to the New World
i. “Fritish” granted monopolies on the slave trade in their countries
1. Set up forts of the west coast of Africa and took the slaves from other Africans.
2. Eventually, by the 1730’s independent slave traders had control
3. Between 20% and 33% of slaves died during the middle passage
i. “Bubbles” – when economies inflate and then implode
i. South Sea Bubble – in the 1700’s, both Britain and France had very fragile economies because they had been fighting each other. Both governments tired to find a solution to get themselves out of debt
1. Britain – in 1719 they give a company the right to take over their national debt (sell their national debt) South Sea Company
a. They had given the company the monopoly on the slave trade in Latin American – they would gain the interest on the debt
b. The investors in the company were not making the money back fast enough, so the company converts the debt into stock that people can buy…erm…sound familiar?
i. First it gain in value, then it…crashed in 1720. Again, sound familiar? undermined the British governments credibility
ii. Mississippi Bubble – the Mississippi Company was given a monopoly over the French Mississippi area trade with Louisiana
1. They take over French debt in exchange for stock…yeah, ditto stock inflates and collapses in 1720
a. So bad that this is one of the factors that will lead to the French Revolution
j. Colonial War Period (1689-1815) – France and GB, but the French government starts collapsing in 1783
i. Lots of fights in the colonies over territory and maritime issues
ii. France had the largest army on land and Britain had the most effective navy, France tried to enlist Spain as allies, but both Spain and the Netherlands were in decline, essentially these were World Wars
iii. Example: War of the Spain Succession (1701-1713) – France loose, but not only in Europe but also in the colonies especially in Canada, Spain therefore also lose its slave trade in Africa, Britain end up getting all of the northern colonies
iv. War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739) – allowed Britain to send one ship a year through Panama
1. Treaty of Utrecht – Britain could trade with the Spanish in Latin America, but Spain then accused them of smuggling they cut off the captains ear violation of British sovereignty George II declares war on Spain War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – declared a draw…for 6 years
2. 7 Years War (1754-63) aka the French and Indian War – biggest war of the 18th Century, involves most of Europe and it was started by George Washington (Fort Duquesne – aka Pittsburg) British governed by the Whigs, send someone to Pittsburg to control the French, Washington loses, the British take it as an insult and start a war The Whigs are replaced by the Tories, new Prime Minister William Pitt he decides to pursue war on North America defeat Frances Navy on high seas, could no longer attack Britain and were gone a competition --Frances Trade is 1/16th of what it was before, sugar trade gone, control over French ports in India taken over by the British, Britain seizes Cuba and Philippines, war ends in 1763
a. Terms of the Treaty of Paris:
i. France loses all its North American Colonies and everything east of the Mississippi, all go to Britain
ii. France give Spain the Louisiana Territory in compensation for being an ally
iii. France has to accept Britain’s domination in India
iv. Spain is Forced to give Florida to Britain
b. Britain managed to screw the advantage up American Revolution (1775-1783) – they strip France of all its American colonies in the first treaty of Paris, in the second treaty of Paris Britain lose a lot of their colonies after the American Revolution (French helped America in the Revolution
k. Colonial Latin America – Spain and Portugal
i. In the 1700’s Spain are still a large part of the Latin American Economy
1. All the gold is gone, but there still is sugar (Silver deposits in Mexico and Peru) - by the end of the 1700’s they are supplying half the worlds silver
2. Spain is able to recover under Philipp VI and their navy ends up being third after France and Britain
3. The problem with Spain and Spanish Colonies was that there were three levels of society in the New World –
a. Creole – Spanish born in America tried to keep up the Spanish ways of life in the colonies, were the aristocracy (20% on the population)
b. Mestizos – Children born to Spanish fathers and Indian Mothers (30% of Spanish America)
c. Amerindians – native people – hardest labor, Latin American Serfs (40-50%)
d. Some black slaves on the sugar plantations
ii. Portuguese had slaves in brazil for sugar farming (50% of Brazilian population were of African descent)
IV. Life in the 18th Century
a. Marriage 1750 (date because that was the start of the first Industrialization)
i. Nuclear Families – Parents begin to move back in with their children because they were the only people they could depend on (Nuclear = two generations three-generation-household = when grandparents move back in primarily in lower classes)
ii. Before industrialization people tended to marry LATER because children were needed to help and couples couldn’t marry until they could support themselves (often not until parents died), girls needed a dowry, something to bring into the marriage
iii. People often had to ask the local land owner for permission to marry (especially in Prussia and the Germanic lands) if they make them wait until they’re older before they start having children then that controls/limits how many they can have
iv. Most couples had up to six children if they lived to 45 (middle/lower class) child mortality was HIGH (20%, 1 of every 5) in good areas. In poor areas it was 1/3. Even if you survived childhood, your chances of reaching adulthood and reproducing were only about 50%
b. Post- 1750 proto-industrialization
i. Cottage industry
ii. It doesn’t take them as long to become independent so they can marry younger
1. More children
2. Urbanization – people don’t have to worry so much, no more restrictions and checks by the neighbors, not such an intimate atmosphere
3. No longer need to constantly evaluate economic situations so more marrying for love, permission not so needed
4. Increase in bastards
5. Chastity, depending on your class, takes a beating, bit of a social breakdown
6. Lack of illegitimate births in the lower classes because they could now get married
iii. Working in the city wasn’t much better, they were very poor, women were discriminated against
1. Attitude towards children changed
2. Developed more mothering instincts
3. Poor mother breastfed their children for much longer
a. Upper class tend to move away from breastfeeding their own children, instead they hire wet nurses
iv. Infanticide – this was condemned but not all that uncommon especially among the poor
1. Orphanages were created – “foundling hospitals” – the first ones in Paris by 1770 1/3 of the babies in Paris were left on church steps, 1/3 of those were left by married couples who couldn’t afford it, 50-90% of the babies at the hospitals died
c. Child Rearing - changes especially in the lower class
i. Used to be – breaking the child’s will, never got attached because mortality rates were very high
ii. Later- morality rates dropped so they began to establish relationships with their children, children began to leave the home to take on apprenticeships, women had to go into domestic jobs - > often they were abused by the masters, got pregnant, ended up on streets, turned to thievery
d. Education – the idea of mass education begins to take root
i. Aristocracy had a head start
ii. Now in the 1700-1800’s there are special schools “little schools” =elementary education, and that was as far as they got
iii. Everyone got enough education to be able to read the bible, Prussia set an example (1717 compulsory education)
iv. Scotland – 1600 – 1 in 6 could read. In 1800 90%
e. Life expectancy explodes in the 1700’s goes from 25 to 35
i. Better nutrition – potatoes, the upper classes didn’t see a huge gain compared to the lower classes – they eat mainly meat, very few vegetables
ii. Better sanitation – small pox eradicated Edward Jenner (discovered that if you get cow pox you don’t get small pox), lack of plague
iii. Better clothes
iv. Improvements in housing - improvements in ventilation, creation of the first mental hospital
f. Religious reforms
i. Pietism – put the emotion back into religion, wanted to see enthusiasm in prayer and preaching – wanted to have more participation, bibles reading and study and channeling these ideas into their everyday lives (Germany)
ii. John Wesley – (England 1703-1791) – Methodist – influenced by Pietism – he was concerned that people were too complacent - most enlightenment people were deists, he didn’t like this. He takes his message to the common people, to the fields, to large numbers of people, also rejects the Calvinists (Predestination) as well as the deist if you wanted it and worked for it you could save your soul
Sunday, 15 November 2009
Scientific Revolution/The Enlightenment
Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment (late 1600’s – 1700’s)
1700’s – Age of Enlightenment/Reason
I. Scientific Revolution
a. Medieval view – the world revolves around the Church
b. Causes
i. Philosophy - “any kinds of thoughts”, different from theologians, branches include mathematics, astronomy, and physics - “natural philosophy”, study of the way nature works
ii. Renaissance – they rediscover ancient mathematics – more efficient mathematical system = calculations that allow them to track things, planet etc., also patronage was very important. AKA The Age of Discovery, Columbus, colonization, navigational skills for which they need math [telescopes, barometer, thermometer, clocks, microscopes, etc.] colleges and navy/merchants work together to help foster trade etc.
iii. The Scientific Method – Francis Bacon, formalized principles of Empirical Experimental Research, Rene Descartes - French mathematician and Philosopher, looked at the Principles of Deductive Reasoning
c. Copernicus – (1473-1543) – didn’t want to challenge the church The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres stated that the earth revolved around the sun, the sun being the centre of the universe, and the stars didn’t move, they only appeared to move because the earth does humans are now insignificant
i. Both Marin Luther and Calvin condemned Copernicus as well as the Catholic Church
ii. In 1616 the Catholic church prosecuted anyone who believed in Copernicus
d. Brache (1546-1601) – Europe’s leading astronomer in the 1600’s, built the best observatory in Europe and later proved the basis for Copernicus’ theory
e. Kepler(1571-1630) – student of Brache, first non religious astronomer, first to mathematically prove the theory
i. He comes up with the three laws of planetary motion
1. Planted move elliptically
2. The motion is not unitary in speed
3. The length of time it takes the planet to revolve around the sun depends on how close it is to the sun
f. Galileo (1564-1642) – got in the most trouble, developed the laws of motion, acceleration experiment, gravity, objects will fall at the same rate independent of their weight, objects in motion will remain in motion until it is stopped. He validated Copernicus’ view by using a telescope. Demonstrates that the moon and other celestial bodies are not perfectly round. His views are largely supported in northern Europe where there are lots of protestants, but the Catholics had already condemned him a heretic
i. 1632 – Dialog concerning the two chief world systems (Ptolemaic and Copernicus) – they forced him to issue a public retraction and for the last 10 years of his life he spent under house arrest
g. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) – empiricism (the inductive method) – one of two major systems of reasoning, use it for scientific experimentation
i. Observation, hypothesis, test
ii. “renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things”
iii. Bacon + Descartes = scientific method
h. Descartes (1596-1650) – cugito ergo sum
i. Deductive Reasoning – gives us the greatest literary misnaming of all time “It’s deductive, Watson”, no its inductive
ii. Algebra and geometry
iii. Cartesian Dualism – refers to all material is divided in to either physical or spiritual material. (there is the spiritual and the STUFF)
1. Spiritual can only be looked at using deductive reasons and physical and only use inductive
2. Inductive + deductive = scientific method
i. Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – Universal Gravitation
i. Mathematical Principles of Philosophy (1687) – becomes the foundation for the Enlightenment
ii. Deism - watchmaker theory
j. Physiology – study of the human body, four humors
i. Vesalius
ii. William Harvey (1628) – On the Movement of the heart and blood – the circulatory system
iii. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)– perfected the microscope, first to see cells, writes
about cells
iv. Royal Societies – of science
***All this leads to the Enlightenment. But Science is not yet highly Secular ***
II. The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
a. Reason can explain all aspects of life
i. Reason was a reflection of God’s ability to reason
ii. “God helps those who help themselves”
iii. The people who believed in reason were also religious they believed that God had made the world and was leaving it to tick
b. Deism – The belief that God was the Deistic Creator – The Watchmaker
i. The universe isn’t governed by God, but by a natural law that God created
c. Spinoza – a philosopher God = Nature
d. Many people now put their thoughts into government and society
i. Treatise – scholarly papers
ii. John Locke (1632-1704)
1. 1690 – Two Treatises of Civil Government
a. His justification for the Glorious Revolution in England
2. He believed that in a state of nature people were good, but were corrupted by society and government
a. Government’s job is to protect the people, given the right to by the people to rule them (life, liberty, and property)
b. “Consent of the Governed”
i. If the government doesn’t protect them, they have the right to change the government
3. Essay Concerning Human Understanding
a. Refute Descartes
4. Believed in Tabula Rasa
e. The more education the more progress
f. Toleration – people needed to be tolerant of other ideas
i. Allow all ideas and the best will rise to the top people needed as much information as possible “Intellectual Survival of the Fittest”
g. Fontenelle (1657-1757) – wrote amazing treatise, skeptical of absolute knowledge, also organized religion
h. Bayle (1647-1706) – the Critical and Historical Dictionary – advocates complete and total toleration of ALL ideas he is also skeptical of absolute truth and organizes religion
i. Philosophes – group of enlightened philosophers in France who helped popularize the Enlightenment
i. They were the intellectual elite, wrote treatises, etc.
ii. Most Famous = Voltaire (1694-1778)
1. Strong deist, challenged the catholic views, believed in human reason
2. Also called for social change – his ideas helped lay the foundations for the French revolution
3. Believed in religious tolerance – said they should crush religious intolerance
4. Organized religion had moved away from the message of Jesus and become corrupt
5. Didn’t Advocate Democracy, but Enlightened Despotism
6. Influenced a number of rulers who saw themselves as being Enlightened Despots – Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Napoleon…
7. He believed in equality before the law, but not of the classes, didn’t believe in bigotry
j. Montesquieu (1689-1755) – member of the French nobility, but hated the absolutism of Louis XIV
i. In 1746 – The Spirit of the Laws - he comes up with the idea of Checks and balances in Government – Executive, Judicial, Legislative – should be equal in power and check each other
ii. Liked the idea of the British Parliament System
iii. Supported 13 Parlements in France – 13 state supreme courts manned by nobles to check the power of the monarchs
k. Rousseau (1712-1778)– The Social Contract – consensus of a majority should rule a nation
i. General Will of the People – an Absolute Monarchs can abuse this idea
ii. But Rousseau doesn’t say how you find out what the majority rule it…no elections?
iii. Man in a simpler state of nature was good – “The noble savage” – what corrupts man is the materialism of civilization…
l. Diderot (1713-1784) – The Encyclopedia (1765) – a compilation of the political and social critiques of the Philosophes - wanted to teach people to think critically and objectively
m. Beccuria (1764) – On Crimes and Punishment French, wanted the punishment the be relative to the crime, thought the death penalty should only be used in the for the most extreme threats against the state, was also opposed to the use of torture to extract confession
i. Frederick the Great banned torture, Catherine the Great restricted torture etc.
III. Economy
i. Quesnay (1694-1774) – physiocrat – advocated Laissez Faire in agriculture
1. Let people who own land keep and it and make profit on the produce
ii. Adam Smith (1727-1799) - The Wealth of Nations (1776)
1. Expansion and refinement of the arguments the physiocrats were using in France
a. The Government should be neutral in its dealing with business, the invisible hand of business should be left to rule the natural laws of supply and demand will prevail
2. Believed the Government should not be involved in the Economy - any participation would mess up the laws of supply and demand
a. The government by definition CANNOT not be involved
IV. Women
i. Salons
ii. Madame de Geoffeu – major salon organizer and patron of Diderot so he could write his encyclopedia
iii. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) - leading advocate of women’s education and political involvement
V. Later Enlightenment
i. Toleration
ii. Reason
iii. Skepticism
b. D’Holbach - System of Nature Humans are machines completely controlled by outside forces, he is a total atheist
c. Hume (1711-1776) - Argues against natural law and faith
i. We are limited by our human senses, we can’t hear what a dog can hear, so Enlightenment?!
d. Condorcet – Progress of the Human Mind – 10 stages of human progress
e. Rousseau - doesn’t want us all to becomes Spok – like
f. Kant – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment, but he starts compartmentalizing things
i. Separates science and morality…erm…
ii. BED ROCK OF AMERICAN FUNDAMENTALISTS…now evolution doesn’t work
VI. Classical Liberalism ≠ Democracy
a. Political out through of the Enlightenment
b. Individual liberty from government control
c. Equality under the law
d. Adam Smith
VII. Religious backlash against the Enlightenment
a. German Pietism – could need spiritual conversion and religious experience
b. Methodism – John Wesley (1703-1791) – “Born Again”
c. Jansenism – catholic sect, directly opposed to an uninvolved god, didn’t life the deists, earlier had been persecuted by Louis XIV for their Calvinist ideals, also believed in predestination
d. Effects:
i. Emergence of a secular world view, primarily of the universe
ii. Enlightened despotism
iii. Educational reform
iv. Laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith)
v. American and French Revolution
VIII. Enlightened Despots
a. Religious Toleration
b. Streamlines legal codes
c. Reduction of Torture
d. Increased access to Education
e. Frederick the Great (r. 1740-86)
i. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
ii. Pragmatic Sanction – the Great powers of Europe said that Charles’ VII daughter would inherit the entire Hapsburg Empire
1. Frederick wasnee happy – Annexed Silesia from Austria go to war, Frederick is good at the War game… Prussia becomes one of the important European power because little Prussia doubles its population by gaining this piece of land
f. Seven Years War – the French Indian War in America gets the European powers included in a war
i. Maria – Theresa of Austria wants Silesia allies -> France and Russia
1. Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
2. Prussia outnumbered 15:1, but then Russia pull out… HAH! Peter III withdrew, giving Prussia a chance to recover… Catherine the Great (German-Prussian)assassinated Peter for pulling out…then ruled Russia for 30 years
3. 1763- Britain and Russia settle their differences
4. Treaty of Paris in 1763 – France looses all of its American colonies to GB and Prussia gets to keep Silesia
ii. Frederick the Great then tries to become an enlightened despot – first servant of the state…but he is an absolute ruler
a. Allows religious freedom, but limited for the Jews
b. Promotes education, especially at university level
c. Makes the judicial system more efficient
d. Frees the serfs on crown lands all the serfs on noble lands are still serfs
e. Will order and end to physical punishment of serfs by nobles, but it was hard to enforce
f. Improved t Civil Service by introducing civil service exams
g. Reduced censorship
h. Abolished capital punishment, except in the army
i. Problem was the Uncas – they were the backbone of the army
i. They couldn’t marry commoners
ii. Couldn’t sell their land to non nobles problems for the middle class – couldn’t rise
iii. Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
1. Considered to be one of the greatest rulers in European history
2. Was in some way involved in the assassination plot, she wasn’t technically in line because Peter the Great had abolished hereditary assumption of the throne
3. Pugachev Rebellion of 1773 – huge serf uprising he and his band of Cossacks kill many land owners scared Catherine because she needed the nobility gives the nobles absolute control over the serfs…
4. 1785- Catherine abolishes taxes on the nobles… for ever !
5. Introduced local government councils… of nobles and other things
6. Problems – the nobles and the state and the crown benefited the most, and the serfs were even worse off
7. Gains land In Poland, Ottoman empire, and Caucuses and Crimea
iv. *Maria Teresa (r.1740-1780) - wasn’t exactly enlightened
1. Eventually becomes ruler because it was given her
2. Conservative and cautious
3. War of the Austrian Succession
4. Didn’t go as far as Religious toleration, didn’t believe in certain enlightenment values, but she wound up doing some of them
5. The results of her actions were enlightened, but she didn’t think enlightened
6. Her son however, will be an enlightened despot Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
7. He is seen as being the greatest of the enlightened despots
8. Frees the serfs in 1781, which the serfs opposed because now instead of paying the lords in time, they had to pay the state in cash, when he dies and his brother Leopold took over, they rescinded it.
9. Freedom and religious toleration for Jews
10. Abolished the death penalty and torture
11. Expands state schools
12. Establishes hospitals, poor house, insane asylums, orphanages
13. Tries to make everyone evil under the law
14. Austria get weak under his control and his brother has to rescind many of his reforms
1700’s – Age of Enlightenment/Reason
I. Scientific Revolution
a. Medieval view – the world revolves around the Church
b. Causes
i. Philosophy - “any kinds of thoughts”, different from theologians, branches include mathematics, astronomy, and physics - “natural philosophy”, study of the way nature works
ii. Renaissance – they rediscover ancient mathematics – more efficient mathematical system = calculations that allow them to track things, planet etc., also patronage was very important. AKA The Age of Discovery, Columbus, colonization, navigational skills for which they need math [telescopes, barometer, thermometer, clocks, microscopes, etc.] colleges and navy/merchants work together to help foster trade etc.
iii. The Scientific Method – Francis Bacon, formalized principles of Empirical Experimental Research, Rene Descartes - French mathematician and Philosopher, looked at the Principles of Deductive Reasoning
c. Copernicus – (1473-1543) – didn’t want to challenge the church The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres stated that the earth revolved around the sun, the sun being the centre of the universe, and the stars didn’t move, they only appeared to move because the earth does humans are now insignificant
i. Both Marin Luther and Calvin condemned Copernicus as well as the Catholic Church
ii. In 1616 the Catholic church prosecuted anyone who believed in Copernicus
d. Brache (1546-1601) – Europe’s leading astronomer in the 1600’s, built the best observatory in Europe and later proved the basis for Copernicus’ theory
e. Kepler(1571-1630) – student of Brache, first non religious astronomer, first to mathematically prove the theory
i. He comes up with the three laws of planetary motion
1. Planted move elliptically
2. The motion is not unitary in speed
3. The length of time it takes the planet to revolve around the sun depends on how close it is to the sun
f. Galileo (1564-1642) – got in the most trouble, developed the laws of motion, acceleration experiment, gravity, objects will fall at the same rate independent of their weight, objects in motion will remain in motion until it is stopped. He validated Copernicus’ view by using a telescope. Demonstrates that the moon and other celestial bodies are not perfectly round. His views are largely supported in northern Europe where there are lots of protestants, but the Catholics had already condemned him a heretic
i. 1632 – Dialog concerning the two chief world systems (Ptolemaic and Copernicus) – they forced him to issue a public retraction and for the last 10 years of his life he spent under house arrest
g. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) – empiricism (the inductive method) – one of two major systems of reasoning, use it for scientific experimentation
i. Observation, hypothesis, test
ii. “renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things”
iii. Bacon + Descartes = scientific method
h. Descartes (1596-1650) – cugito ergo sum
i. Deductive Reasoning – gives us the greatest literary misnaming of all time “It’s deductive, Watson”, no its inductive
ii. Algebra and geometry
iii. Cartesian Dualism – refers to all material is divided in to either physical or spiritual material. (there is the spiritual and the STUFF)
1. Spiritual can only be looked at using deductive reasons and physical and only use inductive
2. Inductive + deductive = scientific method
i. Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – Universal Gravitation
i. Mathematical Principles of Philosophy (1687) – becomes the foundation for the Enlightenment
ii. Deism - watchmaker theory
j. Physiology – study of the human body, four humors
i. Vesalius
ii. William Harvey (1628) – On the Movement of the heart and blood – the circulatory system
iii. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)– perfected the microscope, first to see cells, writes
about cells
iv. Royal Societies – of science
***All this leads to the Enlightenment. But Science is not yet highly Secular ***
II. The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
a. Reason can explain all aspects of life
i. Reason was a reflection of God’s ability to reason
ii. “God helps those who help themselves”
iii. The people who believed in reason were also religious they believed that God had made the world and was leaving it to tick
b. Deism – The belief that God was the Deistic Creator – The Watchmaker
i. The universe isn’t governed by God, but by a natural law that God created
c. Spinoza – a philosopher God = Nature
d. Many people now put their thoughts into government and society
i. Treatise – scholarly papers
ii. John Locke (1632-1704)
1. 1690 – Two Treatises of Civil Government
a. His justification for the Glorious Revolution in England
2. He believed that in a state of nature people were good, but were corrupted by society and government
a. Government’s job is to protect the people, given the right to by the people to rule them (life, liberty, and property)
b. “Consent of the Governed”
i. If the government doesn’t protect them, they have the right to change the government
3. Essay Concerning Human Understanding
a. Refute Descartes
4. Believed in Tabula Rasa
e. The more education the more progress
f. Toleration – people needed to be tolerant of other ideas
i. Allow all ideas and the best will rise to the top people needed as much information as possible “Intellectual Survival of the Fittest”
g. Fontenelle (1657-1757) – wrote amazing treatise, skeptical of absolute knowledge, also organized religion
h. Bayle (1647-1706) – the Critical and Historical Dictionary – advocates complete and total toleration of ALL ideas he is also skeptical of absolute truth and organizes religion
i. Philosophes – group of enlightened philosophers in France who helped popularize the Enlightenment
i. They were the intellectual elite, wrote treatises, etc.
ii. Most Famous = Voltaire (1694-1778)
1. Strong deist, challenged the catholic views, believed in human reason
2. Also called for social change – his ideas helped lay the foundations for the French revolution
3. Believed in religious tolerance – said they should crush religious intolerance
4. Organized religion had moved away from the message of Jesus and become corrupt
5. Didn’t Advocate Democracy, but Enlightened Despotism
6. Influenced a number of rulers who saw themselves as being Enlightened Despots – Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Napoleon…
7. He believed in equality before the law, but not of the classes, didn’t believe in bigotry
j. Montesquieu (1689-1755) – member of the French nobility, but hated the absolutism of Louis XIV
i. In 1746 – The Spirit of the Laws - he comes up with the idea of Checks and balances in Government – Executive, Judicial, Legislative – should be equal in power and check each other
ii. Liked the idea of the British Parliament System
iii. Supported 13 Parlements in France – 13 state supreme courts manned by nobles to check the power of the monarchs
k. Rousseau (1712-1778)– The Social Contract – consensus of a majority should rule a nation
i. General Will of the People – an Absolute Monarchs can abuse this idea
ii. But Rousseau doesn’t say how you find out what the majority rule it…no elections?
iii. Man in a simpler state of nature was good – “The noble savage” – what corrupts man is the materialism of civilization…
l. Diderot (1713-1784) – The Encyclopedia (1765) – a compilation of the political and social critiques of the Philosophes - wanted to teach people to think critically and objectively
m. Beccuria (1764) – On Crimes and Punishment French, wanted the punishment the be relative to the crime, thought the death penalty should only be used in the for the most extreme threats against the state, was also opposed to the use of torture to extract confession
i. Frederick the Great banned torture, Catherine the Great restricted torture etc.
III. Economy
i. Quesnay (1694-1774) – physiocrat – advocated Laissez Faire in agriculture
1. Let people who own land keep and it and make profit on the produce
ii. Adam Smith (1727-1799) - The Wealth of Nations (1776)
1. Expansion and refinement of the arguments the physiocrats were using in France
a. The Government should be neutral in its dealing with business, the invisible hand of business should be left to rule the natural laws of supply and demand will prevail
2. Believed the Government should not be involved in the Economy - any participation would mess up the laws of supply and demand
a. The government by definition CANNOT not be involved
IV. Women
i. Salons
ii. Madame de Geoffeu – major salon organizer and patron of Diderot so he could write his encyclopedia
iii. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) - leading advocate of women’s education and political involvement
V. Later Enlightenment
i. Toleration
ii. Reason
iii. Skepticism
b. D’Holbach - System of Nature Humans are machines completely controlled by outside forces, he is a total atheist
c. Hume (1711-1776) - Argues against natural law and faith
i. We are limited by our human senses, we can’t hear what a dog can hear, so Enlightenment?!
d. Condorcet – Progress of the Human Mind – 10 stages of human progress
e. Rousseau - doesn’t want us all to becomes Spok – like
f. Kant – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment, but he starts compartmentalizing things
i. Separates science and morality…erm…
ii. BED ROCK OF AMERICAN FUNDAMENTALISTS…now evolution doesn’t work
VI. Classical Liberalism ≠ Democracy
a. Political out through of the Enlightenment
b. Individual liberty from government control
c. Equality under the law
d. Adam Smith
VII. Religious backlash against the Enlightenment
a. German Pietism – could need spiritual conversion and religious experience
b. Methodism – John Wesley (1703-1791) – “Born Again”
c. Jansenism – catholic sect, directly opposed to an uninvolved god, didn’t life the deists, earlier had been persecuted by Louis XIV for their Calvinist ideals, also believed in predestination
d. Effects:
i. Emergence of a secular world view, primarily of the universe
ii. Enlightened despotism
iii. Educational reform
iv. Laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith)
v. American and French Revolution
VIII. Enlightened Despots
a. Religious Toleration
b. Streamlines legal codes
c. Reduction of Torture
d. Increased access to Education
e. Frederick the Great (r. 1740-86)
i. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
ii. Pragmatic Sanction – the Great powers of Europe said that Charles’ VII daughter would inherit the entire Hapsburg Empire
1. Frederick wasnee happy – Annexed Silesia from Austria go to war, Frederick is good at the War game… Prussia becomes one of the important European power because little Prussia doubles its population by gaining this piece of land
f. Seven Years War – the French Indian War in America gets the European powers included in a war
i. Maria – Theresa of Austria wants Silesia allies -> France and Russia
1. Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
2. Prussia outnumbered 15:1, but then Russia pull out… HAH! Peter III withdrew, giving Prussia a chance to recover… Catherine the Great (German-Prussian)assassinated Peter for pulling out…then ruled Russia for 30 years
3. 1763- Britain and Russia settle their differences
4. Treaty of Paris in 1763 – France looses all of its American colonies to GB and Prussia gets to keep Silesia
ii. Frederick the Great then tries to become an enlightened despot – first servant of the state…but he is an absolute ruler
a. Allows religious freedom, but limited for the Jews
b. Promotes education, especially at university level
c. Makes the judicial system more efficient
d. Frees the serfs on crown lands all the serfs on noble lands are still serfs
e. Will order and end to physical punishment of serfs by nobles, but it was hard to enforce
f. Improved t Civil Service by introducing civil service exams
g. Reduced censorship
h. Abolished capital punishment, except in the army
i. Problem was the Uncas – they were the backbone of the army
i. They couldn’t marry commoners
ii. Couldn’t sell their land to non nobles problems for the middle class – couldn’t rise
iii. Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
1. Considered to be one of the greatest rulers in European history
2. Was in some way involved in the assassination plot, she wasn’t technically in line because Peter the Great had abolished hereditary assumption of the throne
3. Pugachev Rebellion of 1773 – huge serf uprising he and his band of Cossacks kill many land owners scared Catherine because she needed the nobility gives the nobles absolute control over the serfs…
4. 1785- Catherine abolishes taxes on the nobles… for ever !
5. Introduced local government councils… of nobles and other things
6. Problems – the nobles and the state and the crown benefited the most, and the serfs were even worse off
7. Gains land In Poland, Ottoman empire, and Caucuses and Crimea
iv. *Maria Teresa (r.1740-1780) - wasn’t exactly enlightened
1. Eventually becomes ruler because it was given her
2. Conservative and cautious
3. War of the Austrian Succession
4. Didn’t go as far as Religious toleration, didn’t believe in certain enlightenment values, but she wound up doing some of them
5. The results of her actions were enlightened, but she didn’t think enlightened
6. Her son however, will be an enlightened despot Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
7. He is seen as being the greatest of the enlightened despots
8. Frees the serfs in 1781, which the serfs opposed because now instead of paying the lords in time, they had to pay the state in cash, when he dies and his brother Leopold took over, they rescinded it.
9. Freedom and religious toleration for Jews
10. Abolished the death penalty and torture
11. Expands state schools
12. Establishes hospitals, poor house, insane asylums, orphanages
13. Tries to make everyone evil under the law
14. Austria get weak under his control and his brother has to rescind many of his reforms
Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe (IMCOMPLETE)
Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
- Started off in a bad way, he wasn’t of age when he became ruler, so his sister, Sophia was ruling as his regent he had her banished to a monastery and his mother takes over as his regent and he begins ruling at age 22
- He was very tall and very strong [he could supposedly bend an iron horseshoe with his bare hands
- He also had to deal with internal strife – Strelski – the Moscow Guard – he put down their revolt in 1698 and thereby established himself as the Absolute Monarch
- Peter was very interested in establishing an army – required enlistment
- He spent 25% of the national budget on the army
- His royal army alone had 200,000 men, he also had a special forces unit of foreigners and Cossacks (another 100,000)
- He also established military academies to train officers, some of them specialized in artillery – he was interested in the mechanics of war
- Young male nobles were also required to enlist for 5 years
- Also built up a large navy in the Baltic coast
- Great Northern War (1700-1721)
o Principle allies – Poland, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden
o Battle of Poltava (1709)– Russia defeats the Swedish forces, it is decisive, but the war dragged on
o Peace treaty at Nystad – Russia gained Latvia and Estonia
It gained ports on the Baltic – “Windows to the West”
- Another project – Westernization, Peter was credited with bringing western aspects to Russia
o It is really hard to classify whether Russia is Europe or Asia
- Peter toured Europe incognito, sometimes working along the way, looking up industries and new techniques, brought in westerners to create industries/factories in Russia
o But that created serfdom of the factories – serfs were used as slaves in factories
o Many were state regulated monopolies - no competition/inferior products, no open market, only serfs worked there, No Educated Labor
- Government becomes more efficient under Peter the Great because he rules by decree
o Theoretically the Tsar owned all land, everyone existed to SERVE THE STATE
o No representative political bodies, no parliament
o All land owners owed life time service to the state, if it was required
o The nobility got to own land and serfs in return – they could essentially do what they pleased “if you were a serf, life sucked”
- “Table of Ranks” – it was possible to rise in the bureaucracy through ability
o It set educational standards for the positions, most civil service agents came from the nobility
- He had an extensive Secret Police that were absolutely ruthless and crushed all opposition to the state and taxation
o He had a head tax on every male [annual]
o Also taxed trade/sales/rents/beards
- Used a lot of money for St. Petersburg – wanted create a city similar to Amsterdam although he did create his own version of Versailles
o It was the largest northern City at the time of his death
o He made the serfs work on it and made the nobility build houses there according to his plans
o He also forced merchants and artisan to live there in their own sections
- Political Control – he turned the Orthodox Church into a political structure (1700)
- Peter modernizes Russia, but still the underlying harsh conditions
o He starts to explain his reasoning, but still ruled by decree
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
- Started off in a bad way, he wasn’t of age when he became ruler, so his sister, Sophia was ruling as his regent he had her banished to a monastery and his mother takes over as his regent and he begins ruling at age 22
- He was very tall and very strong [he could supposedly bend an iron horseshoe with his bare hands
- He also had to deal with internal strife – Strelski – the Moscow Guard – he put down their revolt in 1698 and thereby established himself as the Absolute Monarch
- Peter was very interested in establishing an army – required enlistment
- He spent 25% of the national budget on the army
- His royal army alone had 200,000 men, he also had a special forces unit of foreigners and Cossacks (another 100,000)
- He also established military academies to train officers, some of them specialized in artillery – he was interested in the mechanics of war
- Young male nobles were also required to enlist for 5 years
- Also built up a large navy in the Baltic coast
- Great Northern War (1700-1721)
o Principle allies – Poland, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden
o Battle of Poltava (1709)– Russia defeats the Swedish forces, it is decisive, but the war dragged on
o Peace treaty at Nystad – Russia gained Latvia and Estonia
It gained ports on the Baltic – “Windows to the West”
- Another project – Westernization, Peter was credited with bringing western aspects to Russia
o It is really hard to classify whether Russia is Europe or Asia
- Peter toured Europe incognito, sometimes working along the way, looking up industries and new techniques, brought in westerners to create industries/factories in Russia
o But that created serfdom of the factories – serfs were used as slaves in factories
o Many were state regulated monopolies - no competition/inferior products, no open market, only serfs worked there, No Educated Labor
- Government becomes more efficient under Peter the Great because he rules by decree
o Theoretically the Tsar owned all land, everyone existed to SERVE THE STATE
o No representative political bodies, no parliament
o All land owners owed life time service to the state, if it was required
o The nobility got to own land and serfs in return – they could essentially do what they pleased “if you were a serf, life sucked”
- “Table of Ranks” – it was possible to rise in the bureaucracy through ability
o It set educational standards for the positions, most civil service agents came from the nobility
- He had an extensive Secret Police that were absolutely ruthless and crushed all opposition to the state and taxation
o He had a head tax on every male [annual]
o Also taxed trade/sales/rents/beards
- Used a lot of money for St. Petersburg – wanted create a city similar to Amsterdam although he did create his own version of Versailles
o It was the largest northern City at the time of his death
o He made the serfs work on it and made the nobility build houses there according to his plans
o He also forced merchants and artisan to live there in their own sections
- Political Control – he turned the Orthodox Church into a political structure (1700)
- Peter modernizes Russia, but still the underlying harsh conditions
o He starts to explain his reasoning, but still ruled by decree
Constitutionalsim in Western Europe
Constitutionalism in Western Europe (government power limited by law, opposite of Absolutism ) 1600-1725
I. England
a. Elizabeth dies in 1603, end of the Tudor Dynasty
b. There is a degree of social mobility (from rags to riches) – large middle class
c. Improvement in agricultural techniques = enough food
d. Middle class wants more power power struggle between middle and upper middle class
e. Upper Middle Class Gentry = bought titles, sold their land
f. Gentry dominated the House of Commons, are willing to be taxed in return for power and some say in how the money is spent.
g. Nobility resent the increased power of the Gentry
h. Religion – the Puritans, came to outnumber Anglicans by the early 1600’s
i. Puritan = wanted to purify the Anglican of Catholic relics
ii. Puritan Work Ethic idea that God wants you to work hard, not indulge in lots of things, moderation in everything
i. Problems for England start when Elizabeth I dies
i. James VI of Scotland was the nearest relative, so he became James I of England (Stuart Dynasty) (then Charles I [he is beheaded], then Charles II[flees to France, guest of Louis XIV] , then James II [disposed of during the Glorious Revolution]
ii. The Stuarts will try to turn back the clock and move back towards absolutism, but will be restrained by parliament and later by the people, there will be a time when there is no King
iii. Can the King rule without the consent of Parliament, or go against Parliament? lead to civil war
iv. Who controls Church Practice [Puritans], Kings and Archbishops, or is there more freedom of consent, get rid of all the incense and catholic things?
II. James I
a. Assumes the throne when Elizabeth dies in 1603, rules until 1625
b. He believes in Divine Right, both of the Church and the Country, but didn’t like the Puritans because he wanted to keep the Bishops (considers trying to get rid of the King as BOTH heresy AND treason
c. HE dissolves Parliament TWICE when it doesn’t give him what he wants.
i. They won’t raise taxes for a war (they don’t mind taxes, but they want control of where the money goes and they wanted more free speech), he told them they couldn’t disobey him because he ruling by divine right.
ii. He was constrained in part by Elizabeth because she left a sizable dept, so he needed money from Parliament
d. He flaunted his wealth, having large banquets but still asking for money
e. He dies in 1625 and his son takes over
III. Charles I (technically rules until 1649, but is in captivity for some of that, and then loses his head)
a. Divine Right of Kings (Country and the Church)
b. He has even more problems with finance than his father, wars are very costly, he refuses to call parliament
c. To save money they quarter soldiers in their homes very unpopular
d. Some English nobles were arrested for refusing to lend money to the crown
e. By 1628, both Houses are firmly against the King
f. Petition of Right (1628) – parliament tried to get the King to reinforce basic rights in exchange for the higher taxes
i. Only Parliament has the right to levy taxes
ii. No one imprisoned or detained without due process of Law
iii. Habeas Corpus “show me the body”
iv. No forces quartering of soldiers
v. Martial law only during Law
g. There will be no parliament from 1629-1640
i. During this time he used forces taxation
ii. One of the most unpopular taxes was “Ship tax” – every county in England had to pay to outfit ships for the crown
h. Religious issues get him into real trouble
i. Puritans are prosecuted, they flee to USA
i. “Short Parliament” (1640) – Charles gets himself into an internal war against the Scots because he tries to impose the Anglican book of prayer on them
i. He’s therefore desperate for money
ii. Has to fight the Scottish military, so he asks for raised taxes
1. But he has to do all the stuff (petition of rights and reform of the church)
2. He dissolves Parliament
iii. They invade northern England
iv. 1640 – calls parliament back “Long Parliament” (1640-1648), this time they get their concessions
1. Parliament can’t be dissolved unless they agree to it
2. Have to meet at least every three years
3. Ship tax was abolished
4. Leaders of the Puritan persecution (including archbishop Laud) were to be tried in court
5. Abolished the Star Chamber
6. Common Law Court were supreme over royal courts
IV. Causes of the English civil war
a. Gentry take over the House of Commons (many of them are Puritans) Parliament ends up being dominated by Puritans
b. Charles tries to arrest several members of Parliament because they weren’t giving him what he wanted (they won’t fund his army)
c. 1642 – he declares war on his Puritan opponents in Parliament [he can’t dissolve parliament]
i. Kings army = Cavaliers (people who support the crown [nobles, country gentry, and most of the clergy], they will joined by the Irish Catholics)
ii. Puritans – Round Heads [see WWI] – align themselves with the Scottish army, business men supported this side, were supported by the navy and merchant marine (Presbyterian and the Congregationalists)
d. Oliver Cromwell – New Model Army – lead them to victory in 1649 – against the cavaliers battle of Nasby
e. Parliament wanted to disband the Puritan Army in peace time, Cromwell says no. prevents the Scottish invasion of England
f. Pride’s Purge – Parliament is purged of all not Puritan members and all Presbyterians, knock parliament down to 1/5 of its previous size
g. Civil War is officially over when the behead Charles I in 1649 (1st European monarch ever to be executed by the people)
h. New Puritan Sects that evolve
i. The Levellers – radicals – social and political reforms, no body above anyone else
ii. Diggors – did not believe in private ownership of land, no parliament authority
iii. Quakers - believed everyone had their own inner light, so they rejected religious authority.
V. Interregnum (1649-1660)
a. Military government – Cromwell rules with an army of 44,000 men
b. Created the Commonwealth (1646-1653)
c. Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, now only a House of Common
d. Scots invade again because they weren’t happy with the kind of puritans who were ruling it
e. Protectorate (1643-1660), i.e. a Military dictatorship (he calls himself “Lord Protector”), laid down all kinds of new rules for the people, press censorship, theatres closed, sports forbidden, outlawed entertainment
f. Cromwell dissolves parliament, divides England into 12 districts, each ruled by a military general
g. Cromwell’s military victories:
i. 1649 – invades Ireland and puts down an uprising, creates the Act of Settlement, took the land from 2/3 of the Catholics gave it to protestant English settlers
ii. 1651-52 – conquers Scotland
h. Cromwell dies in 1658, but fortunately there is another Puritan waiting to take over for him, his son Richard.
i. He isn’t great, and the people are pissed off
ii. So, in 1660, they invite Charles II to come back The Restoration, the restoring of the English Throne, Parliament reconvenes, but there are restrictions on the King
i. Two Restoration Kings
i. Charles II – agrees to number of restrictions: the Kings power is not absolute, Parliament is stronger than it has ever been, there is religious tolerance (he was called the “Merry Monarch”)
ii. Because parliament now has the power, there will be power struggles in Parliament
iii. Tories (ex cavaliers, nobles – conservatives) and Whigs (more middle class, puritan, favored religious toleration, more liberal)
iv. The Tories tried to get power back in nobility in Parliament
1. Clarendon Code – sought to drive the Puritans out of both political and religious life, put restrictions on them
2. 1663 – Test Act proposed religious test in order to hold public office they had to take the sacrament from the Anglican Church (they couldn’t preach, hold office or everything)
I. England
a. Elizabeth dies in 1603, end of the Tudor Dynasty
b. There is a degree of social mobility (from rags to riches) – large middle class
c. Improvement in agricultural techniques = enough food
d. Middle class wants more power power struggle between middle and upper middle class
e. Upper Middle Class Gentry = bought titles, sold their land
f. Gentry dominated the House of Commons, are willing to be taxed in return for power and some say in how the money is spent.
g. Nobility resent the increased power of the Gentry
h. Religion – the Puritans, came to outnumber Anglicans by the early 1600’s
i. Puritan = wanted to purify the Anglican of Catholic relics
ii. Puritan Work Ethic idea that God wants you to work hard, not indulge in lots of things, moderation in everything
i. Problems for England start when Elizabeth I dies
i. James VI of Scotland was the nearest relative, so he became James I of England (Stuart Dynasty) (then Charles I [he is beheaded], then Charles II[flees to France, guest of Louis XIV] , then James II [disposed of during the Glorious Revolution]
ii. The Stuarts will try to turn back the clock and move back towards absolutism, but will be restrained by parliament and later by the people, there will be a time when there is no King
iii. Can the King rule without the consent of Parliament, or go against Parliament? lead to civil war
iv. Who controls Church Practice [Puritans], Kings and Archbishops, or is there more freedom of consent, get rid of all the incense and catholic things?
II. James I
a. Assumes the throne when Elizabeth dies in 1603, rules until 1625
b. He believes in Divine Right, both of the Church and the Country, but didn’t like the Puritans because he wanted to keep the Bishops (considers trying to get rid of the King as BOTH heresy AND treason
c. HE dissolves Parliament TWICE when it doesn’t give him what he wants.
i. They won’t raise taxes for a war (they don’t mind taxes, but they want control of where the money goes and they wanted more free speech), he told them they couldn’t disobey him because he ruling by divine right.
ii. He was constrained in part by Elizabeth because she left a sizable dept, so he needed money from Parliament
d. He flaunted his wealth, having large banquets but still asking for money
e. He dies in 1625 and his son takes over
III. Charles I (technically rules until 1649, but is in captivity for some of that, and then loses his head)
a. Divine Right of Kings (Country and the Church)
b. He has even more problems with finance than his father, wars are very costly, he refuses to call parliament
c. To save money they quarter soldiers in their homes very unpopular
d. Some English nobles were arrested for refusing to lend money to the crown
e. By 1628, both Houses are firmly against the King
f. Petition of Right (1628) – parliament tried to get the King to reinforce basic rights in exchange for the higher taxes
i. Only Parliament has the right to levy taxes
ii. No one imprisoned or detained without due process of Law
iii. Habeas Corpus “show me the body”
iv. No forces quartering of soldiers
v. Martial law only during Law
g. There will be no parliament from 1629-1640
i. During this time he used forces taxation
ii. One of the most unpopular taxes was “Ship tax” – every county in England had to pay to outfit ships for the crown
h. Religious issues get him into real trouble
i. Puritans are prosecuted, they flee to USA
i. “Short Parliament” (1640) – Charles gets himself into an internal war against the Scots because he tries to impose the Anglican book of prayer on them
i. He’s therefore desperate for money
ii. Has to fight the Scottish military, so he asks for raised taxes
1. But he has to do all the stuff (petition of rights and reform of the church)
2. He dissolves Parliament
iii. They invade northern England
iv. 1640 – calls parliament back “Long Parliament” (1640-1648), this time they get their concessions
1. Parliament can’t be dissolved unless they agree to it
2. Have to meet at least every three years
3. Ship tax was abolished
4. Leaders of the Puritan persecution (including archbishop Laud) were to be tried in court
5. Abolished the Star Chamber
6. Common Law Court were supreme over royal courts
IV. Causes of the English civil war
a. Gentry take over the House of Commons (many of them are Puritans) Parliament ends up being dominated by Puritans
b. Charles tries to arrest several members of Parliament because they weren’t giving him what he wanted (they won’t fund his army)
c. 1642 – he declares war on his Puritan opponents in Parliament [he can’t dissolve parliament]
i. Kings army = Cavaliers (people who support the crown [nobles, country gentry, and most of the clergy], they will joined by the Irish Catholics)
ii. Puritans – Round Heads [see WWI] – align themselves with the Scottish army, business men supported this side, were supported by the navy and merchant marine (Presbyterian and the Congregationalists)
d. Oliver Cromwell – New Model Army – lead them to victory in 1649 – against the cavaliers battle of Nasby
e. Parliament wanted to disband the Puritan Army in peace time, Cromwell says no. prevents the Scottish invasion of England
f. Pride’s Purge – Parliament is purged of all not Puritan members and all Presbyterians, knock parliament down to 1/5 of its previous size
g. Civil War is officially over when the behead Charles I in 1649 (1st European monarch ever to be executed by the people)
h. New Puritan Sects that evolve
i. The Levellers – radicals – social and political reforms, no body above anyone else
ii. Diggors – did not believe in private ownership of land, no parliament authority
iii. Quakers - believed everyone had their own inner light, so they rejected religious authority.
V. Interregnum (1649-1660)
a. Military government – Cromwell rules with an army of 44,000 men
b. Created the Commonwealth (1646-1653)
c. Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, now only a House of Common
d. Scots invade again because they weren’t happy with the kind of puritans who were ruling it
e. Protectorate (1643-1660), i.e. a Military dictatorship (he calls himself “Lord Protector”), laid down all kinds of new rules for the people, press censorship, theatres closed, sports forbidden, outlawed entertainment
f. Cromwell dissolves parliament, divides England into 12 districts, each ruled by a military general
g. Cromwell’s military victories:
i. 1649 – invades Ireland and puts down an uprising, creates the Act of Settlement, took the land from 2/3 of the Catholics gave it to protestant English settlers
ii. 1651-52 – conquers Scotland
h. Cromwell dies in 1658, but fortunately there is another Puritan waiting to take over for him, his son Richard.
i. He isn’t great, and the people are pissed off
ii. So, in 1660, they invite Charles II to come back The Restoration, the restoring of the English Throne, Parliament reconvenes, but there are restrictions on the King
i. Two Restoration Kings
i. Charles II – agrees to number of restrictions: the Kings power is not absolute, Parliament is stronger than it has ever been, there is religious tolerance (he was called the “Merry Monarch”)
ii. Because parliament now has the power, there will be power struggles in Parliament
iii. Tories (ex cavaliers, nobles – conservatives) and Whigs (more middle class, puritan, favored religious toleration, more liberal)
iv. The Tories tried to get power back in nobility in Parliament
1. Clarendon Code – sought to drive the Puritans out of both political and religious life, put restrictions on them
2. 1663 – Test Act proposed religious test in order to hold public office they had to take the sacrament from the Anglican Church (they couldn’t preach, hold office or everything)
Absolutism
Absolutism in Western Europe (1589-1715)
I. Characteristics
a. Monarchs claim to rule by Divine Right [as do their decedents]
i. Not appointed by anyone else. They are God’s representative on earth.
ii. They have the power to make laws, govern people, and control every aspect of their lives.
b. The King becomes a representative for the state/country.
i. Good, if you have a good King, not if not
ii. “Cult of Personality” – strong personality = the embodiment of the state
c. The monarch is not always subjected to a national assembly.
i. Louis XIV NEVER called the assembly [three states]
d. An absolute ruler brings the nobility under control
e. The Kings developed a bureaucracy to help him run the state, but they often had to ask the nobility for money, troops, etc.
i. Louis sold the rights for tax collection, but they became corrupt.
ii. Kings would sometime sell titles to raise money (“New Nobility”)
f. Monarch also had control over the church because they appointed the church officials
g. They had their own armies that were paid for by the government and were loyal to the king rather than to the nobility that donated them.
i. Monarchs often had secret police as well
h. Jean Bodin – writes during the French civil wars
i. Only an absolute monarch will be able to stop the chaos because only they can force the people to obey the government
i. Hobbes – Leviathan
i. He was a pessimist
ii. The only way to keep humanity from falling apart was to have a despot (absolute ruler) – Voltaire agreed to a degree
j. Jacques Bossuet – proponent of the divine right - no man or group that had any authority
II. French Absolutism
a. Three Estates [Clergy (1%), Nobility (3-4%), Bourgeoisie (5%)]
i. France was Europe’s largest country [20% of all of Europe]
b. The monarchy had been boosted financially by Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) [Took power in 1589]
i. First king of Bourbon
ii. Strengthened government institutions [University, treasury]
iii. 1598 Edict Nantes – some freedom [religious toleration] of the Huguenot’s
iv. He will rule until 1610 – assassinated by a monk crisis in power
1. Louis XIII was just a kid - his mother served as his regent [Maria de Medici] until he was 21
2. She didn’t rule absolutely so some of the nobility got their power back.
3. He then exiled his mother
4. His Chief adviser rules [Richelieu] – a politique put religious issues ahead of state issues
a. Intendant System – local officials has been appointed by the nobles in their area, now they were replaced by civil servants (32 districts, justice, police, finance responsibility) nobility is cut out of this loop
v. Duke of Sully – institutes mercantilism, the states get really involved in the economy, grants monopolies, subsidizes different industries, reformed the tax collection system, dug a canal from Mediterranean to the Atlantic
1. France became the most powerful and financially secure monarchy in Europe
vi. relying of new nobility not the old (the ones who had bought their nobility)
vii. Huguenots begin to lose their power again
1. Peace of Alais – Huguenots had had certain cities, Richelieu used the armies to stop that - first step to them being kicked out. Not more totally Calvinist French cities and no more armies
c. Henry IV avoided war, until the 30 Years War
i. French will be key in enforcing the treaty of Westphalia on the Hapsburg.
III. Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
a. Believed in absolutism
b. “L’etat, c’est moi.”
c. Longest rein in European history
d. In the mid to late 1640’s the Fronde – the first 6 years of his rein. The nobles didn’t like Mazarin, so they revolted
i. New cardinal – Mazarin , trying to put down the nobles
ii. Louis never trusted the nobles again – he will make most of his chief minister from the middle class
iii. Exercised control over the peasants
e. Peasants ended up keeping a little as 20% of what they made
i. Corvée – had to spent a month a year working on a pubic project
f. Religious Policies – saw himself as being the supreme catholic, very religious
i. Edict of Fontaine Bleu - rescinds the Calvinists rights in France 200,000 have to emigrate to Netherlands, UK, America
g. Versailles vs. Mercantilism France had to raise money
i. Money for the upkeep of Versailles – was a physical representation that Louis was the Sun God, It started as a hunting lodge for Louis XIII, it was designed to show what humans could do, it was a mini city of 10,000
ii. Colbert 1661-83 – was the finance minister – made France self-sufficient Bullionism – less import, more export, taxes on imports, especially in area where he wanted to give France a leg up, subsidizing some industries, reducing internal tariffs, lower the taxes between the regions of France, organized important French monopolies within their borders on trade Successful after he leaves, France is the leading industrial country in Europe, they have ships, are trading etc.
iii. However… Louis screwed it up. Internal weakness [poor peasant conditions, they were being heavily taxed, so they left] and Louis spent A LOT of money on wars. 2/3 of the time when Louis is King, France is at war eats up a bunch of the revenue, and you cut off your trade because it isn’t safe need more money more taxes, but can’t tax the nobility, so the peasants get it.
IV. French Wars – Louis was paranoid “pissing contest”
a. During the revolution they pulled down all the statues except Henry IV
b. Other EU countries band together against French
c. Wars
i. War of Devolution [1667-1668] – Louis invade the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) 2 years, he gets 12 towns out of it and gave up Burgundy (“First Dutch War)
ii. 2nd Dutch War – 1672-1778 invades the Netherlands
iii. War of the League of Augsburg [1688-97] – attacks the Spanish Netherlands again [against the league that banded together again] William of Orange is now the King of England (comes from the Netherlands) No gain for Louis
iv. War of the Spanish Succession – (1701-1713) – The will of Charles II [Hapsburg king] wills all his Spanish territory to Louis’ grandson Grand alliance – England, Netherlands, Brandenburg, HRE, Savoy, Portugal – Battle of Blenheim -> Louis forces are defeated by Marlborough (John Churchill) [1704], long slaughter for the French after that until it ends, they don’t give up
1. Treaty of Utrecht – ends the war by giving: England gets the slave trade from Spain = Britain uses a lot of slaves in its colonies and territories and Minorca and Gibraltar, Belgium goes to Austria
d. His wars were ridiculously bad destroyed the economy, 20% of the population died, huge debt by the end of the war, by the time he dies, the country is bankrupt and many are happy when he dies.
V. Spanish Colonies
a. 1500’s – Charles V [1519-56]does in Spain what Louis did in France in the 1600. His son Phillip continues [1556-98]
i. Builds the Escorial Palace
ii. Spanish economy down because of internal divisions, they expel Jews and Moors from Spain Spanish population will go from 7.5mil to 5.5 mil
iii. 1594-1680 – many times, Spain with cancel its own debt peasants beg in the street food production goes down cost of food down up
iv. Decline starts with the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1688
b. By 1640 Portugal will have broken away from Spain and it will lose its territory to France (Pyrenees go to France) by 1700 the Spanish Navy had 8 ships
VI. Baroque
a. Baroque art is a reflection of absolutism
i. Starts in catholic reformation countries
1. Helps reinforce the idea of hierarchy
b. Versailles – most famous example of Baroque architecture
i. Bernini – architect and sculptor- St. Peter’s square
ii. Schoenbrunn – Austria
iii. Russia – Winter Palace
iv. Sans Souci
c. Painting – string emotion and movement
i. Great contrast between light and dark [Tenebrism]
ii. Colour, more emotion not so precise
1. Caravaggio – using ordinary people for biblical scenes [painted Jesus’ feet dirty]
2. Rubens – Flemish painter, spent a lot of his time painting for the Hapsburg court in Brussels, known for his sensual nudes of nymphs, mythical creature
3. Velazquez – court painter in Spain
4. Gentileschi – SHE is especially known for a series feat. Judith
d. Dutch – Rembrandt, Vermeer, Hals
i. Went against the baroque style, not overwhelming the viewer, but wanted to show Dutch wealth and power, so focused on Dutch life
e. French
i. Poussain
ii. Plays – Racine[tragedies] Moliere [satire/comedy]
f. Music [late 1600 – well into the 1700]
i. Bach, Monteverdi, Handel
I. Characteristics
a. Monarchs claim to rule by Divine Right [as do their decedents]
i. Not appointed by anyone else. They are God’s representative on earth.
ii. They have the power to make laws, govern people, and control every aspect of their lives.
b. The King becomes a representative for the state/country.
i. Good, if you have a good King, not if not
ii. “Cult of Personality” – strong personality = the embodiment of the state
c. The monarch is not always subjected to a national assembly.
i. Louis XIV NEVER called the assembly [three states]
d. An absolute ruler brings the nobility under control
e. The Kings developed a bureaucracy to help him run the state, but they often had to ask the nobility for money, troops, etc.
i. Louis sold the rights for tax collection, but they became corrupt.
ii. Kings would sometime sell titles to raise money (“New Nobility”)
f. Monarch also had control over the church because they appointed the church officials
g. They had their own armies that were paid for by the government and were loyal to the king rather than to the nobility that donated them.
i. Monarchs often had secret police as well
h. Jean Bodin – writes during the French civil wars
i. Only an absolute monarch will be able to stop the chaos because only they can force the people to obey the government
i. Hobbes – Leviathan
i. He was a pessimist
ii. The only way to keep humanity from falling apart was to have a despot (absolute ruler) – Voltaire agreed to a degree
j. Jacques Bossuet – proponent of the divine right - no man or group that had any authority
II. French Absolutism
a. Three Estates [Clergy (1%), Nobility (3-4%), Bourgeoisie (5%)]
i. France was Europe’s largest country [20% of all of Europe]
b. The monarchy had been boosted financially by Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) [Took power in 1589]
i. First king of Bourbon
ii. Strengthened government institutions [University, treasury]
iii. 1598 Edict Nantes – some freedom [religious toleration] of the Huguenot’s
iv. He will rule until 1610 – assassinated by a monk crisis in power
1. Louis XIII was just a kid - his mother served as his regent [Maria de Medici] until he was 21
2. She didn’t rule absolutely so some of the nobility got their power back.
3. He then exiled his mother
4. His Chief adviser rules [Richelieu] – a politique put religious issues ahead of state issues
a. Intendant System – local officials has been appointed by the nobles in their area, now they were replaced by civil servants (32 districts, justice, police, finance responsibility) nobility is cut out of this loop
v. Duke of Sully – institutes mercantilism, the states get really involved in the economy, grants monopolies, subsidizes different industries, reformed the tax collection system, dug a canal from Mediterranean to the Atlantic
1. France became the most powerful and financially secure monarchy in Europe
vi. relying of new nobility not the old (the ones who had bought their nobility)
vii. Huguenots begin to lose their power again
1. Peace of Alais – Huguenots had had certain cities, Richelieu used the armies to stop that - first step to them being kicked out. Not more totally Calvinist French cities and no more armies
c. Henry IV avoided war, until the 30 Years War
i. French will be key in enforcing the treaty of Westphalia on the Hapsburg.
III. Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
a. Believed in absolutism
b. “L’etat, c’est moi.”
c. Longest rein in European history
d. In the mid to late 1640’s the Fronde – the first 6 years of his rein. The nobles didn’t like Mazarin, so they revolted
i. New cardinal – Mazarin , trying to put down the nobles
ii. Louis never trusted the nobles again – he will make most of his chief minister from the middle class
iii. Exercised control over the peasants
e. Peasants ended up keeping a little as 20% of what they made
i. Corvée – had to spent a month a year working on a pubic project
f. Religious Policies – saw himself as being the supreme catholic, very religious
i. Edict of Fontaine Bleu - rescinds the Calvinists rights in France 200,000 have to emigrate to Netherlands, UK, America
g. Versailles vs. Mercantilism France had to raise money
i. Money for the upkeep of Versailles – was a physical representation that Louis was the Sun God, It started as a hunting lodge for Louis XIII, it was designed to show what humans could do, it was a mini city of 10,000
ii. Colbert 1661-83 – was the finance minister – made France self-sufficient Bullionism – less import, more export, taxes on imports, especially in area where he wanted to give France a leg up, subsidizing some industries, reducing internal tariffs, lower the taxes between the regions of France, organized important French monopolies within their borders on trade Successful after he leaves, France is the leading industrial country in Europe, they have ships, are trading etc.
iii. However… Louis screwed it up. Internal weakness [poor peasant conditions, they were being heavily taxed, so they left] and Louis spent A LOT of money on wars. 2/3 of the time when Louis is King, France is at war eats up a bunch of the revenue, and you cut off your trade because it isn’t safe need more money more taxes, but can’t tax the nobility, so the peasants get it.
IV. French Wars – Louis was paranoid “pissing contest”
a. During the revolution they pulled down all the statues except Henry IV
b. Other EU countries band together against French
c. Wars
i. War of Devolution [1667-1668] – Louis invade the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) 2 years, he gets 12 towns out of it and gave up Burgundy (“First Dutch War)
ii. 2nd Dutch War – 1672-1778 invades the Netherlands
iii. War of the League of Augsburg [1688-97] – attacks the Spanish Netherlands again [against the league that banded together again] William of Orange is now the King of England (comes from the Netherlands) No gain for Louis
iv. War of the Spanish Succession – (1701-1713) – The will of Charles II [Hapsburg king] wills all his Spanish territory to Louis’ grandson Grand alliance – England, Netherlands, Brandenburg, HRE, Savoy, Portugal – Battle of Blenheim -> Louis forces are defeated by Marlborough (John Churchill) [1704], long slaughter for the French after that until it ends, they don’t give up
1. Treaty of Utrecht – ends the war by giving: England gets the slave trade from Spain = Britain uses a lot of slaves in its colonies and territories and Minorca and Gibraltar, Belgium goes to Austria
d. His wars were ridiculously bad destroyed the economy, 20% of the population died, huge debt by the end of the war, by the time he dies, the country is bankrupt and many are happy when he dies.
V. Spanish Colonies
a. 1500’s – Charles V [1519-56]does in Spain what Louis did in France in the 1600. His son Phillip continues [1556-98]
i. Builds the Escorial Palace
ii. Spanish economy down because of internal divisions, they expel Jews and Moors from Spain Spanish population will go from 7.5mil to 5.5 mil
iii. 1594-1680 – many times, Spain with cancel its own debt peasants beg in the street food production goes down cost of food down up
iv. Decline starts with the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1688
b. By 1640 Portugal will have broken away from Spain and it will lose its territory to France (Pyrenees go to France) by 1700 the Spanish Navy had 8 ships
VI. Baroque
a. Baroque art is a reflection of absolutism
i. Starts in catholic reformation countries
1. Helps reinforce the idea of hierarchy
b. Versailles – most famous example of Baroque architecture
i. Bernini – architect and sculptor- St. Peter’s square
ii. Schoenbrunn – Austria
iii. Russia – Winter Palace
iv. Sans Souci
c. Painting – string emotion and movement
i. Great contrast between light and dark [Tenebrism]
ii. Colour, more emotion not so precise
1. Caravaggio – using ordinary people for biblical scenes [painted Jesus’ feet dirty]
2. Rubens – Flemish painter, spent a lot of his time painting for the Hapsburg court in Brussels, known for his sensual nudes of nymphs, mythical creature
3. Velazquez – court painter in Spain
4. Gentileschi – SHE is especially known for a series feat. Judith
d. Dutch – Rembrandt, Vermeer, Hals
i. Went against the baroque style, not overwhelming the viewer, but wanted to show Dutch wealth and power, so focused on Dutch life
e. French
i. Poussain
ii. Plays – Racine[tragedies] Moliere [satire/comedy]
f. Music [late 1600 – well into the 1700]
i. Bach, Monteverdi, Handel
New Monarchs
New Monarchs
I. During the Renaissance and the Reformation
a. They were stronger, reducing the power of the nobility by taxing them and hiring mercenaries
b. Stronger than the clergy
c. Created efficient bureaucracies to enforce laws
II. France
a. Louis XI (“Spider King”)
i. Large royal army
ii. Consolidates lots of power
b. Francis I
i. Ruled for 30 years during the Reformation
ii. Concordat of Bologna - allowed the King to appoint bishops
iii. Taille – tax on all land and property
III. England
i. War of the Roses
1. York(Richard III) vs. Lancaster(later became the Tudors)
a. Henry VII started the Star Chamber
IV. Spain
a. Ferdinand and Isabella
i. The Reconquista – took Spain back from the Moors and the Jews.
ii. The Spanish Inquisition
1. Torquemada – went after heretics, especially converses
iii. Hermandades – alliances of cities to control nobles
V. Hapsburgs
a. The Holy Roman Empire
b. Maximilian I – married Valois line
c. Charles V – during the 1500’s the most powerful ruling
VI. Commercial Revolution
a. Price Revolution
i. From 1500-1600 and population increase from 70-90 million price revolution increase in demand causes prices to go up because it facilitates trade the poor get screwed
ii. specie – how much silver and gold are worth
iii. Influx in gold and silver makes prices go up at first because it allows actual trade to happen
b. More demand increase supply if good to meet demands Capitalism
c. Bourgeoisie – middle class
d. Banking becomes very important
i. Evolves in different place at different times (Medici, banking in Germanic state Hanseatic League (German city states that traded goods =EU) Fuggers)
ii. Antwerp became the banking centre of Europe, later Amsterdam when the Netherlands had their independence
e. Stronger states can tax, fight wars, distribute goods “fairly” (to their friends)
i. Chartered Companies - the state granted a charter to companies, giving them a monopoly over certain areas of productions (East India Trading Company, Dutch)
ii. Joint Stock Companies – the for-runner of our current stock markets. In the first JSC men would get together and join the money to fund an expedition
iii. Bourses – people could trade shares in different ventures
f. Government will take an interest in encouraging certain kinds of interest, for example:
i. England – The Enclosure Movement supported by the government wealthy land owners began to enclose their lands sheep on their land for Wool
1. Created the “putting out industry”, people are put to work spinning wool
2. Different to factory because you go to the factory and work in mass production, wool spinning is at home taking on extra work to make ends meet
ii. New Industries
1. Textile Industry
2. Mining (iron, steel, coal)
3. Printing [books, pamphlets, posters]
4. Ship building
5. Weaponry [canons and muskets] Arms Industry
g. New consumer goods, the products in demand Common Goods
i. Rice, Tea, Sugar – Columbian Exchange [bringing things from America to Europe and vice versa (Potatoes and Corn)] Europeans brought wheat and live stock
ii. Europeans were immune to many diseases that were brought with the live stock between half and ¾ died
iii. Columbus and his men brought back Syphilis
h. High demand for sugar leads to slave trade because the Indians proved too weak to produce it. Columbus’s son brought the first African slaves to America around 1497
i. Columbus’s discovery lead to the colonization mercantilism – exported raw goods to respective mother lands and the goods were shipped back after being made into something of more value and money was made on taxed
j. Bullionism - Spanish wanted to bring back Gold and Silver. If a country wants to be dominant then they have to have as much gold and silver as they could. You need to sell more than you buy
i. Slow transition in European society. Went from rural to more developed with towns
ii. More powerful nation states, more trade = more money for the country due to taxes more exploring
iii. French and British explorers were looking for gold and silver, but found other natural resources that can be exploited
iv. New trade created a middle class the bourgeoisie
v. Some peasant farmers are also able to increase their lot because their products are especially in demand.
vi. The nobility are not getting any money back from their peasants off their land because the feudal system is collapsing
VII. Exploration
a. Three main motives
i. God
ii. Glory
iii. Golds
b. 1492 – Behaim round globe
i. Compass and quadrant (latitude using the stars), astrolabe (latitude using star), much later the cross staff (measures latitude using the north star)
ii. Ship building innovations: caravel - smaller faster
1. Spanish ships called galleons bigger, heavier, and stable, good for African coast, but not for the Atlantic
2. Lateen Sail – take better advantage of the winds
3. Axial rudder – duh, better than oars
4. Gun Powder
c. Nations
i. Portugal – they have Prince Henry the Navigator, sent ships to the west coast of Africa
1. Bartholomew Dias – rounds the southern tip of Africa 1488 for the first time
2. Henry Patronized Exploration
3. Vasco da Gama – makes the all water sail to India which upset the Italians
4. Amerigo Vespucci – explored Brazil unlike Columbus he realized he had reached a new continent. Brazil becomes Portugal’s main colony
ii. Spain - Columbus stuck to the Caribbean
1. Patronized by Ferdinand and Isabella
2. Bartholomew de la Casas – brief account of the destruction of the Indies Columbus forced the Indians to work for gold, cut off hands etc.
3. After Columbus’s discovery the Pope makes the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal divides the Americas from north to south, so Portugal got Brazil and the slave trade
4. Balboa – discovers the Pacific Ocean in 1513 expedition across Panama
5. Magellan – voyage around the world, finished without him
6. Cortez – booty hole, conquered the Aztecs in Mexico conquistador held Montezuma for money
7. Pizarro - booty hole too, Incas in Peru to Aztecs in Mexico
a. Spanish government took a 1/5 cut
8. Encomieda System – structure of society - appointed governor of an area of the Spanish Empire.
a. The Spanish government imposed rules of how Natives could be used. Amerindians had to work so many days a week, but was given some land so they could work for themselves on other days.
i. Mestizos – children of mixed Spanish and Native blood.
ii. Creoles – full Spanish children born in the New World
9. In contrast, the Portuguese use Old Imperialism established forts and post on the West African coast and protected those and traded with the Natives.
a. Most slaves were not captured by Europeans, but bought them from Africans who had captured people from other tribes.
b. Albuquerque – invented old imperialism, governor of Goa (India)
10. People wanted to convert the Natives to Christianity
a. Xavier – missionary Portuguese
iii. Netherlands – eventually edges the Portuguese out of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and out of Ceylon
1. Dutch East India Company 1602, today Shell
iv. France – Jacques Cartier – looking for a water passage over Canada North West Passage
v. British – Cabot – exploration in New England, Sir Walter Rowley, Virginia Lost Colony. The first permanent British Colony James Town 1607
vi. Slave Trade – mid 1600’s Dutch are big, Dutch West India Company, England creates the Royal African Company in the late 1600’s. By 1800 60% are African
Extra: Diseases, European plants, tomatoes, chocolate and vanilla, beans, turkeys
VIII. Demographics – what life was like in the 16th and 17th Centuries
a. Still some nobility with their peasants in the country side.
i. Peasants make up the majority of the rural population.
ii. Now, because there is a middle class, more and more peasants are able to own their own and or get paid more modern economy. But it still sucks not having a land.
b. IN towns, more trade and industry emergence of the bourgeoisie
i. Creation of trade guilds [trade unions] – set standards in that town, who gets what jobs, people have to be trained, for example by a master as an apprentice.
ii. Higher literacy rates because of more education, more printed material available [e.g. the Bible]
c. Long Century [1450-1650] – population boom = good, replenishing after the Black Death.
i. 1650-1750 – population levels level off, then boom again because of agricultural innovations = more colonies [in the 1600’s, but explosive growth in the 1700’s because of population growth]
d. Life expectancy – men [27], women [25], brought down by infant mortality rates and mother deaths.
IX. Witch Hunts
a. Between 1400-1700 between 70,000-100,000 people are killed for being witches
i. Victims were often poor, elderly women, unmarried
ii. Catholic church promoted witch hunts
iii. Hunter were often in rural areas – looking for a scapegoat
iv. Women were more likely to engage in occupations where they could be blames [midwives]
v. Allowed village leaders to keep control by blaming others, they wanted to avoid mob rule
vi. Beginning of insurance companies – reduces witch hunting
vii. The reformation will reduce witch hunts because they believe that God is a spiritual thing, so lack of fairy tales etc.
I. During the Renaissance and the Reformation
a. They were stronger, reducing the power of the nobility by taxing them and hiring mercenaries
b. Stronger than the clergy
c. Created efficient bureaucracies to enforce laws
II. France
a. Louis XI (“Spider King”)
i. Large royal army
ii. Consolidates lots of power
b. Francis I
i. Ruled for 30 years during the Reformation
ii. Concordat of Bologna - allowed the King to appoint bishops
iii. Taille – tax on all land and property
III. England
i. War of the Roses
1. York(Richard III) vs. Lancaster(later became the Tudors)
a. Henry VII started the Star Chamber
IV. Spain
a. Ferdinand and Isabella
i. The Reconquista – took Spain back from the Moors and the Jews.
ii. The Spanish Inquisition
1. Torquemada – went after heretics, especially converses
iii. Hermandades – alliances of cities to control nobles
V. Hapsburgs
a. The Holy Roman Empire
b. Maximilian I – married Valois line
c. Charles V – during the 1500’s the most powerful ruling
VI. Commercial Revolution
a. Price Revolution
i. From 1500-1600 and population increase from 70-90 million price revolution increase in demand causes prices to go up because it facilitates trade the poor get screwed
ii. specie – how much silver and gold are worth
iii. Influx in gold and silver makes prices go up at first because it allows actual trade to happen
b. More demand increase supply if good to meet demands Capitalism
c. Bourgeoisie – middle class
d. Banking becomes very important
i. Evolves in different place at different times (Medici, banking in Germanic state Hanseatic League (German city states that traded goods =EU) Fuggers)
ii. Antwerp became the banking centre of Europe, later Amsterdam when the Netherlands had their independence
e. Stronger states can tax, fight wars, distribute goods “fairly” (to their friends)
i. Chartered Companies - the state granted a charter to companies, giving them a monopoly over certain areas of productions (East India Trading Company, Dutch)
ii. Joint Stock Companies – the for-runner of our current stock markets. In the first JSC men would get together and join the money to fund an expedition
iii. Bourses – people could trade shares in different ventures
f. Government will take an interest in encouraging certain kinds of interest, for example:
i. England – The Enclosure Movement supported by the government wealthy land owners began to enclose their lands sheep on their land for Wool
1. Created the “putting out industry”, people are put to work spinning wool
2. Different to factory because you go to the factory and work in mass production, wool spinning is at home taking on extra work to make ends meet
ii. New Industries
1. Textile Industry
2. Mining (iron, steel, coal)
3. Printing [books, pamphlets, posters]
4. Ship building
5. Weaponry [canons and muskets] Arms Industry
g. New consumer goods, the products in demand Common Goods
i. Rice, Tea, Sugar – Columbian Exchange [bringing things from America to Europe and vice versa (Potatoes and Corn)] Europeans brought wheat and live stock
ii. Europeans were immune to many diseases that were brought with the live stock between half and ¾ died
iii. Columbus and his men brought back Syphilis
h. High demand for sugar leads to slave trade because the Indians proved too weak to produce it. Columbus’s son brought the first African slaves to America around 1497
i. Columbus’s discovery lead to the colonization mercantilism – exported raw goods to respective mother lands and the goods were shipped back after being made into something of more value and money was made on taxed
j. Bullionism - Spanish wanted to bring back Gold and Silver. If a country wants to be dominant then they have to have as much gold and silver as they could. You need to sell more than you buy
i. Slow transition in European society. Went from rural to more developed with towns
ii. More powerful nation states, more trade = more money for the country due to taxes more exploring
iii. French and British explorers were looking for gold and silver, but found other natural resources that can be exploited
iv. New trade created a middle class the bourgeoisie
v. Some peasant farmers are also able to increase their lot because their products are especially in demand.
vi. The nobility are not getting any money back from their peasants off their land because the feudal system is collapsing
VII. Exploration
a. Three main motives
i. God
ii. Glory
iii. Golds
b. 1492 – Behaim round globe
i. Compass and quadrant (latitude using the stars), astrolabe (latitude using star), much later the cross staff (measures latitude using the north star)
ii. Ship building innovations: caravel - smaller faster
1. Spanish ships called galleons bigger, heavier, and stable, good for African coast, but not for the Atlantic
2. Lateen Sail – take better advantage of the winds
3. Axial rudder – duh, better than oars
4. Gun Powder
c. Nations
i. Portugal – they have Prince Henry the Navigator, sent ships to the west coast of Africa
1. Bartholomew Dias – rounds the southern tip of Africa 1488 for the first time
2. Henry Patronized Exploration
3. Vasco da Gama – makes the all water sail to India which upset the Italians
4. Amerigo Vespucci – explored Brazil unlike Columbus he realized he had reached a new continent. Brazil becomes Portugal’s main colony
ii. Spain - Columbus stuck to the Caribbean
1. Patronized by Ferdinand and Isabella
2. Bartholomew de la Casas – brief account of the destruction of the Indies Columbus forced the Indians to work for gold, cut off hands etc.
3. After Columbus’s discovery the Pope makes the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal divides the Americas from north to south, so Portugal got Brazil and the slave trade
4. Balboa – discovers the Pacific Ocean in 1513 expedition across Panama
5. Magellan – voyage around the world, finished without him
6. Cortez – booty hole, conquered the Aztecs in Mexico conquistador held Montezuma for money
7. Pizarro - booty hole too, Incas in Peru to Aztecs in Mexico
a. Spanish government took a 1/5 cut
8. Encomieda System – structure of society - appointed governor of an area of the Spanish Empire.
a. The Spanish government imposed rules of how Natives could be used. Amerindians had to work so many days a week, but was given some land so they could work for themselves on other days.
i. Mestizos – children of mixed Spanish and Native blood.
ii. Creoles – full Spanish children born in the New World
9. In contrast, the Portuguese use Old Imperialism established forts and post on the West African coast and protected those and traded with the Natives.
a. Most slaves were not captured by Europeans, but bought them from Africans who had captured people from other tribes.
b. Albuquerque – invented old imperialism, governor of Goa (India)
10. People wanted to convert the Natives to Christianity
a. Xavier – missionary Portuguese
iii. Netherlands – eventually edges the Portuguese out of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and out of Ceylon
1. Dutch East India Company 1602, today Shell
iv. France – Jacques Cartier – looking for a water passage over Canada North West Passage
v. British – Cabot – exploration in New England, Sir Walter Rowley, Virginia Lost Colony. The first permanent British Colony James Town 1607
vi. Slave Trade – mid 1600’s Dutch are big, Dutch West India Company, England creates the Royal African Company in the late 1600’s. By 1800 60% are African
Extra: Diseases, European plants, tomatoes, chocolate and vanilla, beans, turkeys
VIII. Demographics – what life was like in the 16th and 17th Centuries
a. Still some nobility with their peasants in the country side.
i. Peasants make up the majority of the rural population.
ii. Now, because there is a middle class, more and more peasants are able to own their own and or get paid more modern economy. But it still sucks not having a land.
b. IN towns, more trade and industry emergence of the bourgeoisie
i. Creation of trade guilds [trade unions] – set standards in that town, who gets what jobs, people have to be trained, for example by a master as an apprentice.
ii. Higher literacy rates because of more education, more printed material available [e.g. the Bible]
c. Long Century [1450-1650] – population boom = good, replenishing after the Black Death.
i. 1650-1750 – population levels level off, then boom again because of agricultural innovations = more colonies [in the 1600’s, but explosive growth in the 1700’s because of population growth]
d. Life expectancy – men [27], women [25], brought down by infant mortality rates and mother deaths.
IX. Witch Hunts
a. Between 1400-1700 between 70,000-100,000 people are killed for being witches
i. Victims were often poor, elderly women, unmarried
ii. Catholic church promoted witch hunts
iii. Hunter were often in rural areas – looking for a scapegoat
iv. Women were more likely to engage in occupations where they could be blames [midwives]
v. Allowed village leaders to keep control by blaming others, they wanted to avoid mob rule
vi. Beginning of insurance companies – reduces witch hunting
vii. The reformation will reduce witch hunts because they believe that God is a spiritual thing, so lack of fairy tales etc.
The Reformation
The Reformation
I. Causes
a. Pope not celibate, staging bloody battles for his SON
b. Sale of indulgences, Tetzel sold them in Germany “get out of hell free”
c. Tithe – 10% of your income
d. Many priests were illiterate, but peasants are becoming more educated = less respect for the clergy
e. Great Schism/Babylonian Captivity Counselor Movement, failed, the pop is still infallible
f. Spread of Humanism, living your life, not only just taking what you got, but trying to make something of yourself. (Luther went from being a Minor’s son to a doctorate in theology)
g. Simony
h. Absenteeism – when the bishops didn’t actually live in their region, they lived in a nicer place. (They paid someone to run it for him)
i. Nepotism – use your station to elevate members of their families.
j. Lack of general lack of morality
k. Alexander VI - 1492-1503 numerous affairs, many children out of wedlock, 20% had concubines in Trent
II. Critics
a. Wyclif
b. Hus
c. Thomas a Kempis – created the Brethren of Common Life, Imitation
of Christ (died 1471)
d. Erasmus
III. Luther
a. Did not want to overthrow the Catholic Church, he wanted to reform it.
b. Was an Augustinian Monk, Luther Stadt Wittenberg, was a professor at the University
c. Didn’t life sale of indulgences, especially Tetzel
d. Luther published his 95 Theses in 1517 – wanted to create a debate within the church. He figured that once people see they see the error of their ways they will fix the damage…yeah…so much for that
e. His movement appealed to the common people
f. The theses created a lot of controversy, but it didn’t stay behind academic closed doors, due ot the printing press
g. The pope told Luther to stop, he didn’t so by 1518 Luther needed protection (Saxony)
h. 1520 – debate with Eck - in Leipzig
i. Luther denied the infallibility of the clergy and the pope himself. He rejected the idea if infallibility. Claimed that Hus had been executed unfairly. The Point of No Return for Luther
ii. He published his Statement on Theology
1. Said Salvation come from faith alone
2. You can ask for God’s forgiveness, but not expect to receive it.
3. The Bible is the sole authority
4. Only two sacraments: baptism and communion
5. Church consisted of a priesthood of believers
6. Encouraged the German princes to reform the churches in their own kingdoms
iii. Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther so he burns it publically
iv. Diet of Worms – Diet = tribunal the Holy Roman Emperor [Charles V] promised that no one would be excommunicated without a fair trial
1. Told Luther to recant, he refused
2. Edict of Worms – declares Luther a heretic
3. Luther then “kidnapped” and stayed in the castle of Weimar until he published his bible in 1523
v. Melanchthon – Confession of Augsburg – attempt to find the middle ground, to reconcile everything
IV. Political Battles
a. Reasons for going with Luther: 1. Getting land back, and 2. Freedom from the Church
b. Lutheranism caused Scandinavia and northern Germany to turn protestant, but the rest of Europe developed their OWN versions of Protestantism.
c. Charles V doesn’t like this, he wanted religious unity
i. Turks were threatening Hungary, so he was battling to save Hungary as is was a huge chunk of the Holy Roman Empire, he was also trying to stake his claim on Burgundy. Spent most of his time in Italy.
d. Several events that help to unify
i. Between 1524-25 a number of peasant revolts. They published their own 12 articles
1. Demanded an end to serfdom, quit paying to lords, free hunting rights, Luther put them down, he wanted spiritual reform, NOT political reform. He hated to violence of the uprisings. They were put down quickly and brutally.
ii. League of Schmalkalden - Northern German Princes Unite, defense against Charles V’s drive of Catholicism
1. Francis I aligns himself with the League because they didn’t like the Holy Roman Emperor
2. 1521-1525 there are five Hapsburg vs. Valois wars
3. France wanted to keep Germany divided
4. Charles V will eventually defeat the League in 1547, by then it’s too late.
5. Peace of Augsburg (1555) – allowed the German Principalities to choose either Protestantism vs. Catholicism (The prices chose and all had to follow what he chose)
V. Spread of Protestantism
a. Anabaptists – roundly persecuted in Europe, hates universally because they believed only in a voluntary association of believers with no association to any state, had some successes… that violated their beliefs… some of them took over Muenster in 1532, introduced polygamy, burned all the books except the bible, not always as tolerant.
i. The movement comes to an ugly end because they combined armies of the protestants and Catholics takes the city back in the late 1530’s and killed all the leaders
ii. BUT they had an impact, other groups reflected their beliefs (Mennonites[Dutch, led by Menosimmons, but they were pacifists], Quakers [pacifists, from England], Unitarians [still important today, anybody could join the church, rejected the trinity])
iii. Luther didn’t like this. He did not believe in the validity of these little splinters
iv. Ulrich Zwingli - Swiss, humanist, preached from Erasmus’s Greek New Testament, takes over Zurich and turns it into a theocracy, believed the bible should be the sole source, was reserved with the Eucharist.
1. Catholics – Transubstantiation
2. Luther – Consubstantiation - the host and the wine, were not physical body and blood, but that Christ was present in them
3. Zwingli broke with Luther, Colloquy of Marburg there they disputed over Consubstantiation, Zwingli said it was purely symbolic
b. Calvinism – Founded by the French man John Calvin, studied to be a priest and a lawyer, he ran away to Switzerland, he honed his ideas there.
i. He wrote The Institutes of the Christian Religion(1536)he outlines the basis of his beliefs = predestination, they were waiting for a Conversion Experience, a vision so you know you’re one of the selected.
ii. Establishes his centre in Geneva (Protestants from the Netherlands, France, and England go to Geneva)Couldn’t live in Geneva if you weren’t Calvinist.
iii. Strictest – Consistory – Presbyters this Council had the power to impose harsh penalties on those who didn’t follow God’s Law (No Drinking, singing, dancing, lending money, gambling)
iv. A Unitarian called Severtus was BBQ’d for denying the trinity
v. Emphasized the value of hard work = puritan/protestant work ethic
c. John Knox – Presbyterian in Scotland, still Calvinist France= Hugenots Netherlands = Dutch reformed church = independence in 1581
d. Puritanism – England
VI. English Reformation – Top Down reformation instead of down up
a. Henry VIII – Defense of Seven Sacraments “Defender of the Faith”
b. Already in the 1300’s the King chose the Bishops, Cranmer before More, Act of Supremacy – head of the Anglican Church 25% of the land was catholic, closed all the monasteries Pilgrimage of Grace Statute of Six Articles 1539 Parliament passed turned the
c. Everything catholic was turned into Anglican
d. 1527- Henry VIII dies Edward III at the age ten, died at 16
i. Bloody Mary became queen, tried to make everything catholic again, she married Philip II, King of Spain, she dies in 1558, executed Cranmer
e. Elizabeth I ruled for more than 40 years, she ends the Tudor Dynasty
i. Created the Elizabethan Settlement – requires conformity to the church of England, but in practice people could worship whatever they wanted, but Privately
ii. Established the Book of Common Prayer
iii. Did not reestablish the monasteries
iv. No more Latin
v. Everyone required to attend, fined if you didn’t
vi. Eventually they codified the church doctrine
vii. Some Catholics tried to assassinate her for Mary Queen of Scots, so she imprisoned her, but they kept trying to kill her, so Mary became head shorter.
VII. Women in the Reformation
a. Weren’t really helped.
b. The Catholic Church called sex the original sin.
c. The Protestants were stricter about marriage than Catholics. The Catholics then later adopted the same principals.
d. Luther was married to Bora, they had a very loving relationship and believed that between married couples sex was fine.
e. Protestants put a heavy emphasis on Literacy, at least one book.
f. Schools for Girls (Phillip Melanchthon promoted education in Germany)
g. Women lost a lot of rights, such as the one to own propert
h. Merici – Ursiline Nuns = school for women
i. Teresa de Avila – similar things in Spain
I. Causes
a. Pope not celibate, staging bloody battles for his SON
b. Sale of indulgences, Tetzel sold them in Germany “get out of hell free”
c. Tithe – 10% of your income
d. Many priests were illiterate, but peasants are becoming more educated = less respect for the clergy
e. Great Schism/Babylonian Captivity Counselor Movement, failed, the pop is still infallible
f. Spread of Humanism, living your life, not only just taking what you got, but trying to make something of yourself. (Luther went from being a Minor’s son to a doctorate in theology)
g. Simony
h. Absenteeism – when the bishops didn’t actually live in their region, they lived in a nicer place. (They paid someone to run it for him)
i. Nepotism – use your station to elevate members of their families.
j. Lack of general lack of morality
k. Alexander VI - 1492-1503 numerous affairs, many children out of wedlock, 20% had concubines in Trent
II. Critics
a. Wyclif
b. Hus
c. Thomas a Kempis – created the Brethren of Common Life, Imitation
of Christ (died 1471)
d. Erasmus
III. Luther
a. Did not want to overthrow the Catholic Church, he wanted to reform it.
b. Was an Augustinian Monk, Luther Stadt Wittenberg, was a professor at the University
c. Didn’t life sale of indulgences, especially Tetzel
d. Luther published his 95 Theses in 1517 – wanted to create a debate within the church. He figured that once people see they see the error of their ways they will fix the damage…yeah…so much for that
e. His movement appealed to the common people
f. The theses created a lot of controversy, but it didn’t stay behind academic closed doors, due ot the printing press
g. The pope told Luther to stop, he didn’t so by 1518 Luther needed protection (Saxony)
h. 1520 – debate with Eck - in Leipzig
i. Luther denied the infallibility of the clergy and the pope himself. He rejected the idea if infallibility. Claimed that Hus had been executed unfairly. The Point of No Return for Luther
ii. He published his Statement on Theology
1. Said Salvation come from faith alone
2. You can ask for God’s forgiveness, but not expect to receive it.
3. The Bible is the sole authority
4. Only two sacraments: baptism and communion
5. Church consisted of a priesthood of believers
6. Encouraged the German princes to reform the churches in their own kingdoms
iii. Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther so he burns it publically
iv. Diet of Worms – Diet = tribunal the Holy Roman Emperor [Charles V] promised that no one would be excommunicated without a fair trial
1. Told Luther to recant, he refused
2. Edict of Worms – declares Luther a heretic
3. Luther then “kidnapped” and stayed in the castle of Weimar until he published his bible in 1523
v. Melanchthon – Confession of Augsburg – attempt to find the middle ground, to reconcile everything
IV. Political Battles
a. Reasons for going with Luther: 1. Getting land back, and 2. Freedom from the Church
b. Lutheranism caused Scandinavia and northern Germany to turn protestant, but the rest of Europe developed their OWN versions of Protestantism.
c. Charles V doesn’t like this, he wanted religious unity
i. Turks were threatening Hungary, so he was battling to save Hungary as is was a huge chunk of the Holy Roman Empire, he was also trying to stake his claim on Burgundy. Spent most of his time in Italy.
d. Several events that help to unify
i. Between 1524-25 a number of peasant revolts. They published their own 12 articles
1. Demanded an end to serfdom, quit paying to lords, free hunting rights, Luther put them down, he wanted spiritual reform, NOT political reform. He hated to violence of the uprisings. They were put down quickly and brutally.
ii. League of Schmalkalden - Northern German Princes Unite, defense against Charles V’s drive of Catholicism
1. Francis I aligns himself with the League because they didn’t like the Holy Roman Emperor
2. 1521-1525 there are five Hapsburg vs. Valois wars
3. France wanted to keep Germany divided
4. Charles V will eventually defeat the League in 1547, by then it’s too late.
5. Peace of Augsburg (1555) – allowed the German Principalities to choose either Protestantism vs. Catholicism (The prices chose and all had to follow what he chose)
V. Spread of Protestantism
a. Anabaptists – roundly persecuted in Europe, hates universally because they believed only in a voluntary association of believers with no association to any state, had some successes… that violated their beliefs… some of them took over Muenster in 1532, introduced polygamy, burned all the books except the bible, not always as tolerant.
i. The movement comes to an ugly end because they combined armies of the protestants and Catholics takes the city back in the late 1530’s and killed all the leaders
ii. BUT they had an impact, other groups reflected their beliefs (Mennonites[Dutch, led by Menosimmons, but they were pacifists], Quakers [pacifists, from England], Unitarians [still important today, anybody could join the church, rejected the trinity])
iii. Luther didn’t like this. He did not believe in the validity of these little splinters
iv. Ulrich Zwingli - Swiss, humanist, preached from Erasmus’s Greek New Testament, takes over Zurich and turns it into a theocracy, believed the bible should be the sole source, was reserved with the Eucharist.
1. Catholics – Transubstantiation
2. Luther – Consubstantiation - the host and the wine, were not physical body and blood, but that Christ was present in them
3. Zwingli broke with Luther, Colloquy of Marburg there they disputed over Consubstantiation, Zwingli said it was purely symbolic
b. Calvinism – Founded by the French man John Calvin, studied to be a priest and a lawyer, he ran away to Switzerland, he honed his ideas there.
i. He wrote The Institutes of the Christian Religion(1536)he outlines the basis of his beliefs = predestination, they were waiting for a Conversion Experience, a vision so you know you’re one of the selected.
ii. Establishes his centre in Geneva (Protestants from the Netherlands, France, and England go to Geneva)Couldn’t live in Geneva if you weren’t Calvinist.
iii. Strictest – Consistory – Presbyters this Council had the power to impose harsh penalties on those who didn’t follow God’s Law (No Drinking, singing, dancing, lending money, gambling)
iv. A Unitarian called Severtus was BBQ’d for denying the trinity
v. Emphasized the value of hard work = puritan/protestant work ethic
c. John Knox – Presbyterian in Scotland, still Calvinist France= Hugenots Netherlands = Dutch reformed church = independence in 1581
d. Puritanism – England
VI. English Reformation – Top Down reformation instead of down up
a. Henry VIII – Defense of Seven Sacraments “Defender of the Faith”
b. Already in the 1300’s the King chose the Bishops, Cranmer before More, Act of Supremacy – head of the Anglican Church 25% of the land was catholic, closed all the monasteries Pilgrimage of Grace Statute of Six Articles 1539 Parliament passed turned the
c. Everything catholic was turned into Anglican
d. 1527- Henry VIII dies Edward III at the age ten, died at 16
i. Bloody Mary became queen, tried to make everything catholic again, she married Philip II, King of Spain, she dies in 1558, executed Cranmer
e. Elizabeth I ruled for more than 40 years, she ends the Tudor Dynasty
i. Created the Elizabethan Settlement – requires conformity to the church of England, but in practice people could worship whatever they wanted, but Privately
ii. Established the Book of Common Prayer
iii. Did not reestablish the monasteries
iv. No more Latin
v. Everyone required to attend, fined if you didn’t
vi. Eventually they codified the church doctrine
vii. Some Catholics tried to assassinate her for Mary Queen of Scots, so she imprisoned her, but they kept trying to kill her, so Mary became head shorter.
VII. Women in the Reformation
a. Weren’t really helped.
b. The Catholic Church called sex the original sin.
c. The Protestants were stricter about marriage than Catholics. The Catholics then later adopted the same principals.
d. Luther was married to Bora, they had a very loving relationship and believed that between married couples sex was fine.
e. Protestants put a heavy emphasis on Literacy, at least one book.
f. Schools for Girls (Phillip Melanchthon promoted education in Germany)
g. Women lost a lot of rights, such as the one to own propert
h. Merici – Ursiline Nuns = school for women
i. Teresa de Avila – similar things in Spain
The Renaissance
Renaissance
Questioning, not always excepting what is told
Knowledge
Re-establishment of a civilization
Reformation (later)
More commerce
Individualism (!!!) Sir Thomas Moore - executed by Henry VIII, yet flagellant (the body is sinful, it tries to seduce you to do bad things – drink, sex etc.)
I. Background (How did the Renaissance change…peoples lives, etc.)
a. Beginning of history, in contrast to the middle ages
b. Rough time, from somewhere in the late thirteen hundreds to somewhere in the sixteen hundreds
c. Origins: Burckhardt thesis no longer accepted – the Renaissance affected mainly the upper class (19th century) because only they were educated enough, lower classes didn’t have enough
II. Italy
a. Went from being run by the catholic church the rise of City States (Genoa, Venice, Milan because off trade)
i. These city states were either run by Signori (Despots – one man ruler) or by Oligarchies (groups of powerful merchants)
ii. Commenda - contract between a Merchant and a Merchant Adventurer(captain of the ship)
iii. Italy becomes more Urban (will become the most urban areas on all of Europe, which is where the Renaissance starts
iv. City States COMPETED
v. Eventually in the late 1400’s/ early 1500’s they were overrun by other armies (French and Spain)
vi. Condottieri - mercenary generals that were hired to protect the cities, but they could be bought!!! (if you can buy them, so can someone else…)
b. Major City States Florence (Medici Family), Cosimo De’Medici 9born in the late 1300’s, head of the Medici Family [died 1464], consolidated the Families power, made alliances, marriages Lorenzo De’Medici – patron of the art (died 1492)
Rome – Papal states
Venice – remains independent until Napoleon takes it in the early 1800’s
o Merchants “ruled” w/ election
o Commissioned its own art (St. Marks Square, Rialto Bridge)
Naples – wider ranging area, Southern Italy, including Sicily – actually had a King, but it was the weakest of the city states, dominated by France [ during the middle ages] and Spain after that
Weaknesses
- Separated, so not combined
French Invasion (1494): Milan Ludovico let them in because he was feeling threatened and had a problem with Naples, so he encouraged the French King to invade Naples, thinking that they would then leave Milan alone
At that time Savonarola ruled Florence for about four years, trying to get rid of corruption (94-98)
He was later BBQ’ed …
Medici returned to power, but greatly weakened.
Started Surrogate War, making alliance with City State (Spain = Venice and France + rest)
After this time, after the city states had declined in power, Machiavelli wrote The Prince, for Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI dot, dot, dot…) he hopes to Unite Italy, under his control, so this is his how to manual…
The Prince:
“The End justifies the Means…”
“It is better to be Feared than Loved…”
Being Practical, Cunning, Aggressive, and Ruthless = Prince
Better to Ruthless and have a stable government, than be nice and overthrown
End of Renaissance in Italy, 1527, because Spain sack Rome
III. Humanism in Literature and Art and Philosophy
a. Individual Achievement is important
b. Things that show the potential in individual human beings
c. Values:
i. Virtú – the quality of being a good person, excellent in everything you do, your life should be riles by reason AND nature. You do things that are natural and things that are reasonable (Original Greek and Latin Philosophy and Language)
1. By 1500 almost all the old texts have been rediscovered and translated
This led to two developments
- Liberal arts = renaissance man
o Grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, philosophy
- Civic Humanism - this education prepared men to be the leaders of other men, enlightened leaders because they knew how the pieces fit together, no religious figures
Petrarch – non religious writing, “father of modern writing”
- Came up with the term of “The Dark Ages”
- People are now not looking at the church for inspiration, but to the individual and to classical civilization
- He studies the classics
- Wrote poetry - secular sonnets in vernacular (Italian)
Boccacio – Italian Chaucer “Decameron” – tails about common people, focusing on the individual, writing about things that was not “nice”, also created an encyclopedia for Greek mythology
Bruni – “Humanism”, very in favor of civic humanism (education)(1444 died)
- wrote a history of Florence, some consider him to be the first historian
Lorenzo Valla – THE expert on Latin (1407-1457)
- considered the first linguist
- found out about the false documents that the Church had, in which they claimed land
- looked at the church bible, and pointed out the errors
- YET, he was a devout catholic, trying to help the church
Ficino – one of the most influential humanists
- Re-founds “Plato’s Academy” in Florence
- Mirandolo – member of his academy “Oration on the Dignity of Man”
Humans were created by God, in his image, so they have the potential to be great. But, through neglect, they can also fail. Fulfill your potential.
Castiglione - defined the idea of a Renaissance Man (1528) The Book of the Courtier - the qualities of a true gentleman
- “Don’t spit on the floor”
- Be able to read Greek and Latin, accomplished warrior, be able to dance
- “virtú”
Johannes Gutenberg - moveable type
- Mid 1400’s, print the Gutenberg Bible
o Increase the literacy of the population
IV. Renaissance Art
a. Italy – Patronage
i. Artist (received patronage) vs. Artisan (makes useful crafts)
ii. Florence – major art centre
1. Vasari – “The lives of the Artists” (1500’s)
2. Medici’s – major Patrons
3. Sforza – Milan – commissioned da Vinci to go to Milan to paint the Last Supper
4. Artists did both religious and secular art
5. Michelangelo – David (was supposed to be in the Florence Cathedral)
iii. Patronage also came from the church
1. Commissioned parts of the cathedral in Florence
2. New techniques
a. More 3D, painting in perspective
b. Chiaroscuro - tone variation (light and shadow)
c. Individual faces, more emotion
d. Sfumato – da Vinci blurred lines, looked like it was farther away
e. Changes sculpture
i. (medieval sculpture – relief sculpture, renaissance – free standing, more nudes)
iv. Art centre shifted from Florence to Rome
1. St. Peter’s Basilica vs. St. Paul’s (after England went Anglican)
v. Architecture – trying to copy the simple lines of Greek, but the Italians couldn’t leave things simple, they had to have their states
vi. Artists
1. Brunelleschi – architect (cathedral in Florence, 1400’s – largest dome in the world…then came the romans, developed techniques of perspective)
2. Ghiberti – major rival, gets the doors of the cathedral in Florence, da Vinci called his doors “Gates to Paradise”
3. Donatello – nude sculptures
4. Botticelli - “The Birth of Venus” (early Renaissance)
5. Bramante – chapel, where St. Peter was crucified, commissioned by the pope in 1500 (high Renaissance)
6. Leonardo da Vinci – The Renaissance Man, painter, sculptor, artist, architect, engineer, biologist, designed a helicopter
7. Raphael Santi – Madonna and Child
8. Michelangelo – David sculpture, Pieta (Mary holding Jesus after he’s died)
9. Titian – vivid color, Venice School
vii. School of Mannerism – rebelling against Renaissance because everything has to be perfect
1. Tintoretto – elongated figures
2. ElGreco – burial of Count Orgaz
Relate an aspect of the medial mind set/life to what Dante wrote
Castles vs. Palaces
Castles – no cities
Palaces – built in preexisting cities
Did the Feudal Lords have more or less power in the Middle Ages.
- On a small scale, they loose power
- But on a larger scale, the kings had so much power because they had to be able to exercise power over a large number of people (ex. Henry VIII or Elizabeth I)
V. Northern Renaissance
a. The north is more Christian, less emphasis on the Ancient Greeks and Romans
i. Christian Humanism – focused on this life, the church takes a more active role in helping people now and to live their lives, and not only be focused on the afterlife. Help people realize their full potential so that they can then go and help others.
ii. Erasmus - Humanist, the master of Greek, made knew “pure” versions of the Bible. One of the first people in the Renaissance to live from his writing. In Praise of Folly huge bestseller in its day. Devout catholic. He believed that by shining the light on the church through satire, the church would start to reform.
iii. Sir Thomas More – Utopia 1536 martyred
iv. Lefevre d’Estables - French humanist, five different versions of the psalms (there isn‘t one version correct of the bible)
v. Ximenes de Cisneros – Spanish Humanist – reformed the Spanish clergy, also Grand Inquisitor in the Spanish Inquisition. His reformation caused the Reformation to be unnecessary. Created the Three Language Bible.
vi. Rabelais – French author wrote the Gargantua and Pantagruel.
vii. Montaigne – essay form. Skepticism Doctrine skeptics believed that true knowledge can never be acquired. You cannot truly know anything.
viii. Shakespeare – plays and inventing new words, plays reflect ideals of humanism, vernacular
ix. Cervantes – Don Quixote criticizing excess in chivalry and being too idealistic
VI. Northern Renaissance Art
a. Flemish Style - modern day Belgium/Luxembourg
i. Influenced by the Italians, but they used even more detail than the Italian renaissance, but in the background.
ii. Used oil paint instead of tempera paint
iii. More emotional in their painting
iv. Often preoccupied with death
v. Van Eyck
vi. Bosch
vii. Brueghel the Elder
b. German
i. Dürer
ii. Holbein the Younger
iii. Fuggers – Jakob, money lenders. Northern Europe version of Medici Family
VII. Role of Women
a. Querelles des Femmes
b. Where do women fit into the renaissance?
i. Definite social role (middle ages)
ii. More access to education to be pleasing to a man, held to a higher standard
iii. Lost some status
iv. More concerned with rape, purity more important
v. Christine de Pisan – died 1434 wrote books, The City of Ladies,(Chronicle of great women in history) The Book of Three Virtues (How to manual, how to be a renaissance woman) French, very well educated
vi. Isabella d’Este - 1474 – 1539 Italian, wrote over 2,00 letters about courtly life and politics, rules Mantua after her husband died and founded a school for women
vii. Artemesia Gentileschi – Italian, established painter, more post Renaissance = baroque, paints both historical and religious paintings.
viii. Peasant/Lower Class – lives didn’t change a whole lot from the Middle Ages. Nuclear Families, marriages based on economic reasons, not love. Parents decided. Dowries. Average age of marriage for women – younger than 20, men, late 20’s. Middle classes tended to wait to marry, the lower and upper classes married earlier. Upswing in child abandonment in the renaissance in the lower class. Creation of foundling hospitals.
ix. Catarina Sforza – Milan
x. Isabella I – Spain
xi. Mary Tudor¬ – England
xii. Elizabeth I¬ – 1558-1603 45 years
xiii. Catherine de Medicis – married into the French royal family and rules France for 30 years
xiv. Joan Kelly - Did women have a Renaissance? The middle class women didn’t have a renaissance. They were hurt by it and didn’t have any rights. They were now completely relegated to the home, whereas men took over the political sphere. More prostitution in the Renaissance. In the middle ages, women had even served as tutors, no more.
Questioning, not always excepting what is told
Knowledge
Re-establishment of a civilization
Reformation (later)
More commerce
Individualism (!!!) Sir Thomas Moore - executed by Henry VIII, yet flagellant (the body is sinful, it tries to seduce you to do bad things – drink, sex etc.)
I. Background (How did the Renaissance change…peoples lives, etc.)
a. Beginning of history, in contrast to the middle ages
b. Rough time, from somewhere in the late thirteen hundreds to somewhere in the sixteen hundreds
c. Origins: Burckhardt thesis no longer accepted – the Renaissance affected mainly the upper class (19th century) because only they were educated enough, lower classes didn’t have enough
II. Italy
a. Went from being run by the catholic church the rise of City States (Genoa, Venice, Milan because off trade)
i. These city states were either run by Signori (Despots – one man ruler) or by Oligarchies (groups of powerful merchants)
ii. Commenda - contract between a Merchant and a Merchant Adventurer(captain of the ship)
iii. Italy becomes more Urban (will become the most urban areas on all of Europe, which is where the Renaissance starts
iv. City States COMPETED
v. Eventually in the late 1400’s/ early 1500’s they were overrun by other armies (French and Spain)
vi. Condottieri - mercenary generals that were hired to protect the cities, but they could be bought!!! (if you can buy them, so can someone else…)
b. Major City States Florence (Medici Family), Cosimo De’Medici 9born in the late 1300’s, head of the Medici Family [died 1464], consolidated the Families power, made alliances, marriages Lorenzo De’Medici – patron of the art (died 1492)
Rome – Papal states
Venice – remains independent until Napoleon takes it in the early 1800’s
o Merchants “ruled” w/ election
o Commissioned its own art (St. Marks Square, Rialto Bridge)
Naples – wider ranging area, Southern Italy, including Sicily – actually had a King, but it was the weakest of the city states, dominated by France [ during the middle ages] and Spain after that
Weaknesses
- Separated, so not combined
French Invasion (1494): Milan Ludovico let them in because he was feeling threatened and had a problem with Naples, so he encouraged the French King to invade Naples, thinking that they would then leave Milan alone
At that time Savonarola ruled Florence for about four years, trying to get rid of corruption (94-98)
He was later BBQ’ed …
Medici returned to power, but greatly weakened.
Started Surrogate War, making alliance with City State (Spain = Venice and France + rest)
After this time, after the city states had declined in power, Machiavelli wrote The Prince, for Cesare Borgia (son of Pope Alexander VI dot, dot, dot…) he hopes to Unite Italy, under his control, so this is his how to manual…
The Prince:
“The End justifies the Means…”
“It is better to be Feared than Loved…”
Being Practical, Cunning, Aggressive, and Ruthless = Prince
Better to Ruthless and have a stable government, than be nice and overthrown
End of Renaissance in Italy, 1527, because Spain sack Rome
III. Humanism in Literature and Art and Philosophy
a. Individual Achievement is important
b. Things that show the potential in individual human beings
c. Values:
i. Virtú – the quality of being a good person, excellent in everything you do, your life should be riles by reason AND nature. You do things that are natural and things that are reasonable (Original Greek and Latin Philosophy and Language)
1. By 1500 almost all the old texts have been rediscovered and translated
This led to two developments
- Liberal arts = renaissance man
o Grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, philosophy
- Civic Humanism - this education prepared men to be the leaders of other men, enlightened leaders because they knew how the pieces fit together, no religious figures
Petrarch – non religious writing, “father of modern writing”
- Came up with the term of “The Dark Ages”
- People are now not looking at the church for inspiration, but to the individual and to classical civilization
- He studies the classics
- Wrote poetry - secular sonnets in vernacular (Italian)
Boccacio – Italian Chaucer “Decameron” – tails about common people, focusing on the individual, writing about things that was not “nice”, also created an encyclopedia for Greek mythology
Bruni – “Humanism”, very in favor of civic humanism (education)(1444 died)
- wrote a history of Florence, some consider him to be the first historian
Lorenzo Valla – THE expert on Latin (1407-1457)
- considered the first linguist
- found out about the false documents that the Church had, in which they claimed land
- looked at the church bible, and pointed out the errors
- YET, he was a devout catholic, trying to help the church
Ficino – one of the most influential humanists
- Re-founds “Plato’s Academy” in Florence
- Mirandolo – member of his academy “Oration on the Dignity of Man”
Humans were created by God, in his image, so they have the potential to be great. But, through neglect, they can also fail. Fulfill your potential.
Castiglione - defined the idea of a Renaissance Man (1528) The Book of the Courtier - the qualities of a true gentleman
- “Don’t spit on the floor”
- Be able to read Greek and Latin, accomplished warrior, be able to dance
- “virtú”
Johannes Gutenberg - moveable type
- Mid 1400’s, print the Gutenberg Bible
o Increase the literacy of the population
IV. Renaissance Art
a. Italy – Patronage
i. Artist (received patronage) vs. Artisan (makes useful crafts)
ii. Florence – major art centre
1. Vasari – “The lives of the Artists” (1500’s)
2. Medici’s – major Patrons
3. Sforza – Milan – commissioned da Vinci to go to Milan to paint the Last Supper
4. Artists did both religious and secular art
5. Michelangelo – David (was supposed to be in the Florence Cathedral)
iii. Patronage also came from the church
1. Commissioned parts of the cathedral in Florence
2. New techniques
a. More 3D, painting in perspective
b. Chiaroscuro - tone variation (light and shadow)
c. Individual faces, more emotion
d. Sfumato – da Vinci blurred lines, looked like it was farther away
e. Changes sculpture
i. (medieval sculpture – relief sculpture, renaissance – free standing, more nudes)
iv. Art centre shifted from Florence to Rome
1. St. Peter’s Basilica vs. St. Paul’s (after England went Anglican)
v. Architecture – trying to copy the simple lines of Greek, but the Italians couldn’t leave things simple, they had to have their states
vi. Artists
1. Brunelleschi – architect (cathedral in Florence, 1400’s – largest dome in the world…then came the romans, developed techniques of perspective)
2. Ghiberti – major rival, gets the doors of the cathedral in Florence, da Vinci called his doors “Gates to Paradise”
3. Donatello – nude sculptures
4. Botticelli - “The Birth of Venus” (early Renaissance)
5. Bramante – chapel, where St. Peter was crucified, commissioned by the pope in 1500 (high Renaissance)
6. Leonardo da Vinci – The Renaissance Man, painter, sculptor, artist, architect, engineer, biologist, designed a helicopter
7. Raphael Santi – Madonna and Child
8. Michelangelo – David sculpture, Pieta (Mary holding Jesus after he’s died)
9. Titian – vivid color, Venice School
vii. School of Mannerism – rebelling against Renaissance because everything has to be perfect
1. Tintoretto – elongated figures
2. ElGreco – burial of Count Orgaz
Relate an aspect of the medial mind set/life to what Dante wrote
Castles vs. Palaces
Castles – no cities
Palaces – built in preexisting cities
Did the Feudal Lords have more or less power in the Middle Ages.
- On a small scale, they loose power
- But on a larger scale, the kings had so much power because they had to be able to exercise power over a large number of people (ex. Henry VIII or Elizabeth I)
V. Northern Renaissance
a. The north is more Christian, less emphasis on the Ancient Greeks and Romans
i. Christian Humanism – focused on this life, the church takes a more active role in helping people now and to live their lives, and not only be focused on the afterlife. Help people realize their full potential so that they can then go and help others.
ii. Erasmus - Humanist, the master of Greek, made knew “pure” versions of the Bible. One of the first people in the Renaissance to live from his writing. In Praise of Folly huge bestseller in its day. Devout catholic. He believed that by shining the light on the church through satire, the church would start to reform.
iii. Sir Thomas More – Utopia 1536 martyred
iv. Lefevre d’Estables - French humanist, five different versions of the psalms (there isn‘t one version correct of the bible)
v. Ximenes de Cisneros – Spanish Humanist – reformed the Spanish clergy, also Grand Inquisitor in the Spanish Inquisition. His reformation caused the Reformation to be unnecessary. Created the Three Language Bible.
vi. Rabelais – French author wrote the Gargantua and Pantagruel.
vii. Montaigne – essay form. Skepticism Doctrine skeptics believed that true knowledge can never be acquired. You cannot truly know anything.
viii. Shakespeare – plays and inventing new words, plays reflect ideals of humanism, vernacular
ix. Cervantes – Don Quixote criticizing excess in chivalry and being too idealistic
VI. Northern Renaissance Art
a. Flemish Style - modern day Belgium/Luxembourg
i. Influenced by the Italians, but they used even more detail than the Italian renaissance, but in the background.
ii. Used oil paint instead of tempera paint
iii. More emotional in their painting
iv. Often preoccupied with death
v. Van Eyck
vi. Bosch
vii. Brueghel the Elder
b. German
i. Dürer
ii. Holbein the Younger
iii. Fuggers – Jakob, money lenders. Northern Europe version of Medici Family
VII. Role of Women
a. Querelles des Femmes
b. Where do women fit into the renaissance?
i. Definite social role (middle ages)
ii. More access to education to be pleasing to a man, held to a higher standard
iii. Lost some status
iv. More concerned with rape, purity more important
v. Christine de Pisan – died 1434 wrote books, The City of Ladies,(Chronicle of great women in history) The Book of Three Virtues (How to manual, how to be a renaissance woman) French, very well educated
vi. Isabella d’Este - 1474 – 1539 Italian, wrote over 2,00 letters about courtly life and politics, rules Mantua after her husband died and founded a school for women
vii. Artemesia Gentileschi – Italian, established painter, more post Renaissance = baroque, paints both historical and religious paintings.
viii. Peasant/Lower Class – lives didn’t change a whole lot from the Middle Ages. Nuclear Families, marriages based on economic reasons, not love. Parents decided. Dowries. Average age of marriage for women – younger than 20, men, late 20’s. Middle classes tended to wait to marry, the lower and upper classes married earlier. Upswing in child abandonment in the renaissance in the lower class. Creation of foundling hospitals.
ix. Catarina Sforza – Milan
x. Isabella I – Spain
xi. Mary Tudor¬ – England
xii. Elizabeth I¬ – 1558-1603 45 years
xiii. Catherine de Medicis – married into the French royal family and rules France for 30 years
xiv. Joan Kelly - Did women have a Renaissance? The middle class women didn’t have a renaissance. They were hurt by it and didn’t have any rights. They were now completely relegated to the home, whereas men took over the political sphere. More prostitution in the Renaissance. In the middle ages, women had even served as tutors, no more.
The Later Middle Ages
So, here's the first post. sorry about the lack of formatting, it wont let me keep it in outline form unless I go through and indent every line by hand, which I unfortunately don't have time to do.
1. What is Civilization?
- Civilized by their own standards
- Follow rules of society/ laws
- Evolution over time
2. What is necessary for Civilization to occur?
- Share common beliefs
- Live close
- Leaders/ authority that enforces laws and guides the people
- Stationary in one place/ not nomadic
- Specialization – being able to concentrate on more than survival
- Communication – e.g. between villages even
3. What can destroy Civilization?
- Lack of leader
- Being conquered
- Lack or resources/ disaster
- Destruction of common belief
- Genocide
- Wars (Civil War)
- Lack of development – reach a plateau
Civilization does NOT equal Society
For Society to grow they need a certain amount of technology (horse shoes/plows/machinery)
Specialization – being able to focus on culture/tools/other ideas other that survival
Technology frees people to be able to follow cultural pursuits
Mazlo’s Pyramid – self actualization
Often, when civilizations collapse, then they have to rise again from the ashes and rebuild themselves.
The Later Middle Ages
I. The Black Death (1347-1350)
i. major cause of the collapse of the feudal system
ii. Bubonic Plague
iii. Ships now had three sails, so they could sail throughout the winter and brought rats with flees to Europe
iv. Starts in Italy and went North
v. Periodic breakouts for the next 20 years
a. Causes
i. Overcrowding (cities and homes)
ii. Poor sanitation
iii. Poor Hygiene
iv. Poor Nutrition (25% of harvest poor in previous 50 years)
b. Results
i. Opened people’s eyes to how they were living (Sanitation, Religion)
ii. Created the start of the Renaissance
iii. Lowering of the standards of the clergy = starts the reformation
iv. Serfdom died out – peasant revolts
v. England – Closure Laws – peasants couldn’t graze their animals of public lands, they had to own or pay a fee
vi. Persecution of Jews, later allowed back into France and to lend Money with high interest rates – Jews = scapegoats
Art and Literature reflect the pessimism of the time “Dance of Death”
German and Scandinavian the most pessimistic
Population rebound after the Plague took almost two centuries (mid 1500’s)
II. 100 Years War (1337-1453)
a. Cause = Britain and France both claimed a piece of France (Aquaitaine)
i. French tried to kick British out, fought on and off for 116 years
ii. British actually captured and ransomed the French King
iii. British started out strong, got all the way to Paris
iv. French didn’t favour the King
v. Joan of Ark turned it around for the French – she was told by voiced to defend France (She united the French states to a single country)
vi. She was the Maid of Orleans
vii. Was captured by the British, and burned for Witchcraft (hearing voices, wearing men’s clothing)
viii. It created modern states in England and in France
1. Why? Peasants wanted more control over the money
2. Creation of the Parliament in England
3. Lead to the French Revolution
4. Taxes needed to pay for the War
5. Lead to a more liberalized Society
III. Crisis in the Church
a. Why would a Rebirth start?
i. Need for Knowledge
ii. Church has to lose its monopoly on knowledge so it can be spread
b. John Wyclif
i. Gods Law was more important than Popes Law
ii. Writes an English Bible (predecessor of Luther)
iii. Lollards
c. Jan Hus
i. Hussites - followers
ii. Stages some large rebellions
iii. Followers took his reforms a sign of national unity
iv. Burned as a heretic
d. Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377)
i. Vatican in France = two popes (Italian and French)
ii. Division of the Church
iii. Great Schism (1377-1417)
iv. Even more expensive for the catholic peasantry
v. Moved the Vatican to Avignon
vi. Italian Pope Urban V went after Absenteeism
The Pope was INFALLIBLE! He cannot be wrong…but there were two…uhuh…
Conciliar Movement - trying to reform the church, to get rid of Simony, make the church more democratic…it FAILED, but ended the Great Schism (byebye Frenchie)
IV. Collapse of the Byzantine Empire
a. Roman Catholic Church vs. the Eastern Orthodox Church (Rome and Constantinople)
i. 1453 – the capital of the Eastern Orthodox Church is taken by the Ottoman Empire (Muslims take over) – go into Eastern Europe, the Balkan, and threatened Austria and Hungary (Austro-Hungarian Empire)
b. The Byzantine Empire had a huge Library - Greek Plays. Scholars took them and ran west
c. Opera was an attempt to recreate Greek plays … and they Failed
V. Vernacular Literature
a. Chaucer – Canterbury Tails
b. Dante – Divine Comedy
c. Villion – Grand Testament
VI. Life in the Middle Ages
a. Get married at 16-18
b. Marriage for economic reasons
c. Prostitution was common, even sanctioned by the city
d. Agricultural
e. Most Guilds were Men (Labour Unions)
i. Became corrupt, didn’t want new people to come in, had to pay a few, had to be a descendent of someone who was in the Guild
f. Entertainment
i. No jousting
ii. Common people - alcohol (safer than drinking the water)
1. Bull Baiting – starved dogs
VII. Scholasticism - St. Thomas Aquinas (got fat, special table to accommodate his gut…)
a. God gave people a mind so that they could use logic
b. Faith and reason don’t have to fight against each other
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