Let’s Kill Napoleon: The Napoleonic Era
1799-1815 – considering all the trouble he caused, it’s remarkable that he was only in power for 16 years
I. Background – he was born in Corsica to a family of Italian descent
a. He was a military genius, very few historians dispute that, he rose in the military ranks during the French Revolution, he was 20 during the actual revolution
i. He is able to rise through the ranks very easily because all the officers and nobility fled during the revolution and consequently there were a lot of vacancies
b. He was able to take power because people wanted stability after the tyranny of the revolution (Like Vladimir Putin)
c. Two Stages of Napoleon coming to power
II. First: Consulate Period (December 25th, 1799-1804)
a. A new constitution named him “First Consul” (Consul comes from Ancient Rome, a leader who rules of behalf of the people)
i. He, in essence, did what a lot of rulers who have tried to rule through charisma do: tried to make his first loyalty to the state, by being efficient. He rewarded ability and created and effective bureaucracy. Making things run when things haven’t been running, except blood from necks, can make you very popular.
ii. He believed in Meritocracy: he wanted people to be able to rise through the ranks based on ability as he had done
b. He used Reforms
i. The Napoleonic Code – people long for an earlier, easier time, they become more conservative.
1. His code helps solidify things, but women had more rights during the Revolution.
2. This is the first, complete codification of French Law. It had four parts
a. Civil Code
b. Criminal Procedure Code
c. Commercial Code
d. Penal Code
3. Emphasizes a strong, unified, central government and the protection of property, all conservative Values. Some of these were good. For example:
a. Equality before the law, freedom of religion (however, the state must be secular, i.e. separation of church and state), property rights, abolition of serfdom.
b. Women gained some inheritance rights, but most of these rights were less than they had during the revolution
i. Women and children were legally dependent on the father
ii. Divorce is harder to obtain
iii. Women can buy and start a business, but only with permission from their husband and any money they earned went to their husbands
iv. Penalties for adultery were more severe for women than for men
ii. “Careers Open to Talent”
1. Theoretically, anyone could rise to any position; Napoleon used this to promote talented officials.
a. The Bourgeoisie used this to its full advantage
2. He will hand out between 1808-1814 he will create over 3600 new nobility titles for people
a. People were granted pensions or property, but mostly they went to military officers, he was very much into rewarding his soldiers
b. Even with all the titles, the nobility was still only 7% of what iut was before the revolution
c. Religious Reforms
i. Concordat of 1800 - church agrees not to ask for all their property back, the government can still appoint bishops. However, they changed the priests: now the Jurying clergy is in: Out with the New, in with the Old
1. Catholic worship in public is allowed, civil rights are extended to everyone (excluding Muslims it would seem)
2. Went back to the Christian calendar
ii. Napoleon uses this to his advantage
1. People who have church lands need to pledge loyalty to his government in order to keep it
2. Napoleon places all protestant ministers on government payroll, to make France look not catholic
d. Financial Reforms – he creates the Bank of France
i. This is a stabilizing force, it was a formed version of the one in the Ancien Regime
ii. He balances the national budget
iii. The banks can release sound currency
iv. Takes measures to stimulate the economy: food at low prices, increases employment, lowers taxes on farms to lower food prices,
v. He makes tax collection more efficient
vi. However, one group is unimportant and is excluded: Sans Culottes, the poor people. He forbids the formation of Trade Unions
e. Educational Reforms – the Lycee systems prospers under Napoleon, have to go to the special university
i. Two tiered system: one for people who spend one or more years of school and those who had to enter the work force
f. Created a Police State – spy system, after 1810, he started locking up political prisoners after his popularity started to decline. By 1814 he had over 2500 political prisoners
i. He even executed the Duke of Enghien on no evidence because he was supposedly part of a plot against him (1804)
g. Drawbacks of his reforms
i. No rights for women
ii. Bad luck for the poor
iii. Suppression of liberty
iv. Nepotism – when you put your relatives in positions.
III. Wars during Consulate Era
a. He maintains power by having France constantly at war.
b. Wars usually short but in different places against different groups, except Britain, with who he was always at war. It wasn’t until the very end that powers such as Austria, Britain, and Prussia banded together to toss his ass out
c. War of the 2nd Coalition – gets his butt kicked in the Battle of the Nile (battle of denial…ha ha ha) (1798-1801)
i. Looses the battle, but wins the war. He escapes from Africa
ii. Austria looses it Italian possessions, France gets them, they also get the western Rhine Territory
d. Suddenly, there is a period of peace, he is trying gain stature by regaining his control over France
i. The Treaty of Amiens (1802) – with Britain. Why? Britain wants to expand its trade with the continent because they had lost their American Colonies. France was monopolizing the Continental trade
ii. During this period, he also gives up all claims to North America, but keeps some of the Caribbean. There is a huge uprising in French Haiti, he was having trouble with the colonies, needed money for his wars, so he sold the Louisiana Purchase for 15 Million to America
IV. Empire Period (second phase) (1804-1814)
a. He was crowned hereditary Emperor, meaning he could pass his crown to his heirs
i. Believed that France needed an empire to remain stable
b. Began in 1805 to create the Grand empire – he will be constantly at war from thins point onwards
i. Thinks that he is liberating the people he is conquering from their oppressive rule
ii. Will have the largest empire since Rome, so a time
1. He creates the Confederation of the Rhine, troupes go all the way the Hamburg, special wine that traces itself back to Napoleons occupation
2. Because of trouble with Spain he conquers them and puts his brother Joseph on the throne. Part of the long line of relatives to be in power
3. Westphalia King is brother
4. Brother as the king of Holland, who he later removes and just makes it part of France
5. Sister queen of Naples
6. Step son is the ruler of the rest of Italy (he had run out of siblings)
a. Italy remains disunified but he decides not to so that they can’t rise up and threaten him
7. Goes on to ally himself with Austria, Prussia, he furthered the unification of Germany … ja ja ja he moved it forwards, in a manner of speaking
iii. People in the conquered lands weren’t totally against him, at least to begin with. But as his repression continued, they got pissed off:
1. Conscription into the French army
2. Higher taxes for people on other countries while he makes himself popular in his own country by lowering taxes, he makes up for the difference
3. The Continental System
iv. War of the 3rd Coalition (1805-1807)- with the money from the Louisiana purchase , begins to plan a war against England
1. England has some allies: Russia, Sweden, Austria
2. Battle of Trafalgar (October 1805)- another triumph of Horatio Nelson over Napoleon, both the Spanish and the French fleet were destroyed by Nelson at Trafalgar, just off the coast of Spain
a. At this point, Britain is the World’s Navel power for the best part of a century; they will not be rivaled until about WWI when the USA kick it up.
b. This was Nelson’s last battle, he died, and Napoleon is much better on land
v. Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805) – Napoleon wins because the Russian chicken out and Napoleon get’s huge chunks of Austria. The Coalition had collapsed
1. In honor of this momentous victory, he commissioned the Arc de Triumph (*** Neoclassicism***)
2. Napoleon goes on to bust Russia twice in 1806 in Jena and Auerstadt
3. He’s collecting parts of Europe
vi. 1807- Russia capitulates
1. Massive treaty signed in 1807: The Treaty of Tilsit – he get half of Prussia’s population (that much land)
2. Russia signs on to accept what France has taken in Europe and agrees to accept the continental system
3. Some historians says this is the height of Napoleons Success
4. Napoleon can only keep it going as long as he keeps conquering
vii. France Reorganizes Germany (1807)
1. Confederation of the Rhine (300 states into 15) Prussia Is not one of these states
2. Abolishes once and for all the Holy Roman Empire – it was pretty much dead anyway for all practicalities
3. HE creates Westphalia (the west bank of the Elbe on into territories taken from Hannover)
viii. Two things happen
1. By consolidating the states, he starts a process that Bismarck will finish
2. Oppresses the Germans, creating/raising German Nationalism in areas that weren’t technically Prussian
c. Continental System - Economic warfare
i. Attempt to weaken Napoleon’s enemies economically, starting with Britain
1. Berlin decree (1806) – wants to starve Britain out, so he blocks all the continental ports that trade with England (he uses everyone who signed the Treaty of Tilsit and coerced or forced everyone else to do it too)
ii. Britain responds with the Orders in Council (1806) they say that anybody who is neutral (inc. US) anybody who wants to enter a port in Europe has to stop in Britain first, but Napoleon has said that anyone who stops in UK first, will be subject to seizure
1. Napoleon responds by making it official that ships can’t do this. He specifically says that any ship that stops in UK will be seized by France (Milan Decree 1807)
iii. The lack of trains/railroads doomed the continental system because they couldn’t really trade with each other. The infrastructure isn’t there
1. The most hit and pissed off were the Eastern Europeans because they were the most dependant on trade
d. This whole mess leads to the War of 1812 (between the USA and UK)- four days later the UK rescinds the Orders in Council
e. Peninsular War (1808-1814) – begins in part because napoleon put his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain. They resent his heavy handedness and the fact that there is a non-Spaniard on the throne. The British help them
i. They step up their guerrilla warfare
ii. Napoleon is also suffering because the UK is blockading French ports.
1. He blames Czar Alexander I of Russian for the problems in Spain…right…
f. In the middle of all of this, he changes women. Josephine can’t give him an heir. He divorces her and marries the daughter of the Austrian Emperor, Marie Louise, but he is actually the niece of Marie Antoinette. Napoleon is now related by marriage to the Bourbon Dynasty. He has a son with Marie Louise, who is 18.
g. Still fighting the guerrilla warfare, he enters the stupidest war ever
i. Army of 600,000, invade Russia (1812) – the official cause for attacking is that they withdraw from the continental system, they had to trade with UK because they couldn’t survive … uhuh. Obviously e war trying to gain other things, such as land. IT screws him because he keeps going further into Russia and his resource lines are too long
1. Battle of Borodino (1812) – it ends in a draw and then they retreat so that his army has NOTHING to live on. It screws him because he keeps going into winter. He actually gets Moscow, but the Russian’s burn it before they gave it to him
2. 400,000 of his 600,000 army will die not only from battle but also from exposure and starvation, only 30,000 made it home.
3. He takes what he has left and raises another army
h. Britain decides that it’s important enough to get involved and they split their troupes with America and start the War of the 4th Coalition (1813-1814)
i. Napoleon will be defeated in 1813, but everything doesn’t play out to is abdication until 1814
ii. Members: UK, Austria, Russia, Prussia
iii. Decisive defeat for Napoleon in Leipzig (Battle of Nations) – napoleon’s 2nd grand army is crushed, but he refuses to accept the proposals that rise out of this battle
1. The Frankfurt Proposal (Metternich made these proposals, which were actually pretty damn generous)
a. He had to return France to its original boarders and Napoleon could keep his title…but he refused
b. When he doesn’t take it, the triple alliance each donate 150,000 men to destroy Napoleon, at which point he sees the writing on the wall and he does abdicate, but only when the army of 600,000 enters Paris
iv. The Charter of 1814 – changes the government of France – it gets a King back, Louis XVIII (Bourbon)
1. He creates a two house legislature which only contains the upper class, but he keeps most of Napoleon’s reforms.
2. Now that there is a king in place, they get him to sign the Treaty of Paris (1814) stating that France surrenders all territory gained since the Revolution. The allied powers agree to ask for no reparations
3. Napoleon was exiled to the Isle of Elba, as an ex-sovereign, with payroll provided
v. The Powers meet in the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) – they meet for so long because they have to create all the boarders on Europe. They have to redraw Europe. Sometimes also called the dancing congress because they had so many balls and feasts etc. that was where deals were made
1. Metternich represent Austria – royalist conservative, wants to turn back the clock
2. Britain - Castlereagh – has a royal dominated country, so is worried about a secular France, wants a balance of power to stop it happening again
3. Prussia- wanted their land back
4. Czar Alexander I - Russia – wanted a free and independent Poland that he would be the King of
5. Talleyrand – France
vi. The government that was created
1. Based on Legitimacy, Compensation, Balance of Power
a. Legitimacy: replaced the king to the throne (the Bourbon, also put on the thrones of Spain and Naples), the pope gets the Papal States.
b. Compensation: They did take some compensation for themselves for getting rid of Napoleon, they took land (England got Naval bases [Malta, Ceylon, Cape of Good Hope], Austria gets the Italian province of Lombardi and Venice and a couple of little pieces of Poland too, Russia gets most of Poland as well as Finland, Prussia takes the Rhineland, Poland, and most of Saxony, Sweden gets Norway)
c. Balance of Power: they drew Europe so that never again could one state upset the international order and cause a widespread war. How? Strengthen the Netherlands [unite the Austrian Netherlands with the free Netherlands to create the Kingdom of the Netherlands; Switzerland is now Neutral, not an ally; there was a formal end to the Holy Roman Empire; they kept Napoleon’s reorganization of the German states
vii. When the dust settles, the only one of the allies to be a growing world power is Britain. They got naval bases and Navy was the power. They will be THE world power naval-y until WWI
i. 100 Days: Napoleon’s Last Hurrah (1815)
i. Napoleon escapes Elba and goes to the South of France where he is very popular, he actually raises an army, goes into Paris, increases his army, defeats Prussia, but he himself is then defeated by Wellington at Waterloo
1. After that he is exiled to St. Helena (Africa), he will be there until his death in 1821
j. The Allies are pissed off and France have to pay 70 million in reparations for “loss of life”
V. Final Evaluation of Napoleon
a. His dictatorship wasn’t completely had: he consolidated some of the reforms that had been started in the revolution, centralized the government and gave it an efficient bureaucracy, settled things with the church, helped spread some of the achievements throughout Europe
b. Problems: DICTATORSHIP, loss of liberty and personal freedom, loss of republicanism, repression of conquered peoples, and wars…
c. This sets the stage for the Concert of Europe
VI. Concert of Europe
a. There isn’t one power in Europe, but the allies that helped out down Napoleon (Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria) will keep the peace
i. The whole idea is that they would fight against any changes in the status quo
ii. They create the Congress System (life a pre-pre EU) lasts from 1815-1822 until Britain gives them the Finger and leaves
iii. It has been criticized for not being democratic and turning back the clock, but it did give them stability and security for a number of years until Bismarck upsets it in the late 19th Century and there won’t be another major war until WWI
b. Czar Alexander I proposed the Holy Alliance to uphold Christian principles to maintain peace
i. Three entities didn’t sign it: Britain, Papal States, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Tuesday, 15 December 2009
Saturday, 5 December 2009
The French Revolution Part II
Part II
Everyone was called a citizen and had a certain amount of equality (Jein for Women)
- Olympe de Gouges The Rights of Women, add to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Women should have the right to Divorce, property, education, etc.
- Mary Wollstonecraft “Vindication of the Rights of Women(English version)
October 5-6th, 1789 March of the Women, spontaneous demonstration of Parisian Women for bread (7,000 walked 12 miles to Versailles)
- Upset because of economic trouble, many of them were unemployed (after the revolution clothing wasn’t affordable for most people)
- Killed the bodyguards looking for Marie Antoinette, who them has to flee to Paris with Louis XVI, and he tries to suck up to the women, signs a treaty to guarantee them bread at a reasonable price
National Assembly moves to Paris Conservative members start quitting because they didn’t like the violence and the uncontrolled masses = the assembly becomes more radical
Sir Edmund Burke (1790, English) – write a conservative response to the revolution in France defending the aristocracy...it can’t really be reflections because the revolution isn’t over. It says why the aristocracy is good, defends inherited rights, and ”predicts” dictatorship and chaos in France. He advised England to slow down on its own reforms, not to give the common people too many rights to prevent chaos
How to Finance a New Government –> Confiscate Church Land (1790) also create a constitution “Civil Constitution of the Clergy” (1790)
- They secularize religion… right…
- National Church - 83 Bishops, abolished convents and monasteries (sold the land to pay the church men
- The clergy were forbidden to be loyal to the pope, but it was still Catholicism, in a way…
- This split the country through all social classes
o The pope condemned the act
o Half of the clergy refused to take the oath (they were called the “refractory” clergy)
- After the revolution, it gave the church more power
Print Assignats – Bonds (quasi printing money
- National Constituent Assembly, Revolution, not War Bonds (their collateral [“Pfand”] was Church Land)
- They lost almost 100% of their value in 5 years (1790-1795)
- The government printed more money INFLATION!!!
o People started using the bonds as money, rather than trading them in for money, which caused even more inflation
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, each diesis had its own state appointed Bishops, Archbishops were forbidden, the Jurying Clergy were the ones who took the oath
- Priest are elected by the district assembly
Eventually Louis XVI “accepts” the Constitution and the National Assembly (1790)
- The nobility was abolished, but the lower class still isn’t getting the vote
The whole of France is divided into self-governing provinces (83 of them !!!)
- Devolution weakened power, it is a form of democracy, BUT the country is largely unable to band together during, for example, a time of war
The French Constitution of 1791 A bourgeoisie Government
- The King lost power, had similar power to the House of Lords (could suspend government legislation and implementation of laws (for up to 4 years), but couldn’t completely veto it)
- The Single Chamber National Assembly could grant taxation, and was judicially independent
Active Citizen – pays taxes = three days labour and could vote
Passive Citizen – 1/3 of adult males were denied the franchise (domestic servants were also excluded)
Newly elected Legislative assembly – their goal was to make sure the country was not turned over to the mob (to stop mob rule)
June 1791 – Royal family tried to flee, caught at the boarder
The First Coalition and the Brunswick manifesto (3.8.1792)
- Duke of Brunswick- if the royal family is harmed, then Paris will be leveled … but he’s in Prussia. this undermines the National Assembly
Leopold I (Austria) – threatens the French government, if they harm the King (and his Austrian queen...) then he will attack if Prussia, UK, Spain, and Piedmont also do
*** But he doesn’t actually plan on fighting because what are the chances of ALL of the other power taking up arms...***
Jacobin vs. Girondin (who were in favour of war and were a sub, more radical, group of the Jacobins)
- Girondins see Leopold’s claim as a declaration of war and they in turn declare war on Austria, and get crushed on the Field which they blame on the King
o The Brunswick manifesto to protect the King
The French army was weak anyway because half of their officers had emigrated and many of the aristocratic families no longer sent one of their sons to become officers in the army anymore
The King was in the Palace in detention, but not under arrest or their direct control, this changed with the Brunswick manifesto
The French Revolution: the “Radical Phase”
The National Convention
- Girondin Rule (1792-1792)
- Jacobin Rule (1793-1794) – ruled by Robespierre, Danton and Marat (“Reign of Terror”), they incite the mobs to storm Toulerries and take the King prisoner (2. Phase Revolution)
- Thermadorian Reaction (1794-1795)
Causes of the Instability in France (1792 – 1795 [when the bonds were worth nothing]
1. War
2. Economic Crisis
3. Political Division
4. Attitude and actions of the monarchy and the court
5. Fear of a Counter revolution
6. Religious decisions
Jacobins started as a middle class debating society
Sans Culottes Parisian working class, supportive of the Jacobins and their values
The September massacre (1792) – the “dark” side of the Revolution
- Anybody who was thought to be on the wrong side (anti-revolutionary) was a potential target
The National Convention (September 1792) the government tries to remake itself
- 1st act- abolish the monarchy in hopes of calming things down and stopping the killings
The Decree of Fraternity – they offer to help people in other countries with their own revolutions seeing as they are such experts in matters of revolution
- “When France Sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold”
- ***Political spectrum diagram***
Sans Culottes backed the leftists in the end
Politics of the National Convention Montegnards vs. Girondists
France declare war on Britain, Holland and Spain (1793)
Vote to Kill the King (387 to 334 in the National Convention)
Attempting to control the Growing Crisis
- Revolutionary Tribunal – to try suspected counter revolutionists (= STASI)
- People were sent to check on the army (Representatives of Mission)
- The keep watch in foreigners (Watch Committees)
- Anyone who returned after being exiles could be tried and executed immediately
They printed more money, even though they were already bankrupt
Committee of Public Safety (CPS) – the oversee the speed up government (led by Robespierre)
- Tried to created a controlled Economy to control prices, control hunger, to wage wars, rationing was introduced
Committee of General Security (CGS) – pursuing suspected counter Revolutionaries (also Robespierre)
Marat was killed by his mistress in the bath tub because he wasn’t radical enough
The Levee en Masse – army based on merit
Legislation passed by the National Convention (September 1793)
- Law of general Maximum – limit s prices and wages trying to control inflation
- Law of suspects – two weeks later anybody not displaying enthusiastic support for the republic could be placed under arrest
The Reign of Terror – Terror is nothing other than justice: prompt, severe, inflexible – Robespierre
- “Let Terror be the order of the day.” Revolutionary tribunal of Paris alone executed 2,639 victims in 15 months (6 a day)
- Total number of victims nationwide during this cycle was 20,00
- Mainly lower and working classes executed
Resistance to the Revolution in the Country side (1793)
- 300,000 troupes needed for wars, They didn’t want to go
- They were still being highly taxed
- They were staunchly catholic and didn’t like what happened to the clergy
- They didn’t benefit from the selling of the church land
- Targets: Local governments officials, National Guardians, Jurying priests
Religious terror
- De-Christianization
- The catholic church was linked with real or potential counter revolutions
They changed the calendar to the Republican Calendar
o Abolished Sundays and religious holidays
o Months are named after seasonal things
o 7 day weeks replaced with 10-day decades
o Yearly calendar started with the start of the republic (July 19th –August 17th = Thermidor)
Returned to the Gregorian calendar in 1806
Banned the public exercise of religion
Backlash – people get pissed
- It alienated most of the population (especially people in rural areas)
- Robespierre never supported it, but he didn’t stop it “silence is consent”
o He persuaded the convention to reaffirm the principle of religious toleration, but he never enforced it
- Decree on the “Liberty of Cults”, but it’s only a cover story, he could always say that they were built on religious toleration
The Terror intensified March to July 1794
- Jacques Hebert and his followers were executed in March 1794, Danton and the “Indulgents” were executed in April 1794
- Law of 22 Prairial (open execution law, no imprisonments, either freed or chopped) Are you an enemy of the people?
- 1500 were executed between June and July
... we could make bread out of ash or very small rocks...
During this time, ironically, the French army was kicking some ass while the nut balls were chopping off heads in Paris. The main thing it had going for it were the number of people and they had true believers. They fought because they really believed
The Thermadorian reaction - July 26th Robespierre is going nuts and has his Hitler moment holds a speech ... and finally the people are suspicious and the Convention arrests him (July 26th)
July 28th Robespierre is tried and was a head shorter
The Cultural Revolution brought about by the Convention
- Abolition of slavery
- Introduce metric system
- Sanction divorce
- Etc.
Thermadorian Reaction
- Curtailed the power of the committee for Public Safety
- Closed the Jacobin Club
- Churches were reopened
- Economic restriction were lifted in favor of lasses faire policies
- August 1795 a new constitution is written
o They are afraid of another Robespierre so they set it up so that no one person is in power
o A more conservative republicanism
Directory
- Outlaw Paris commune
- Law of 22 Prairial were revoked
- People involved in org, terror were now attacked “White Terror”
- Inflation continues
- Rule by rich bourgeoisie liberals
- Self-indulgence – frivolous culture, salons return , wild fashions
- Political corruption
- Revival Catholicism
- 5-man executive committee (to avoid dictatorship)
- Tried to avoid the danger of a one-house legislature (have to be married or widowed to be on the Council of Elders (250 members)
- Council 500, initiates legislation
- All males over 21 who paid taxed voted
- This doesn’t go over well CHAOS (big surprise there)
- Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of Equals = communism
- Napoleon is able to stage a coup
Everyone was called a citizen and had a certain amount of equality (Jein for Women)
- Olympe de Gouges The Rights of Women, add to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Women should have the right to Divorce, property, education, etc.
- Mary Wollstonecraft “Vindication of the Rights of Women(English version)
October 5-6th, 1789 March of the Women, spontaneous demonstration of Parisian Women for bread (7,000 walked 12 miles to Versailles)
- Upset because of economic trouble, many of them were unemployed (after the revolution clothing wasn’t affordable for most people)
- Killed the bodyguards looking for Marie Antoinette, who them has to flee to Paris with Louis XVI, and he tries to suck up to the women, signs a treaty to guarantee them bread at a reasonable price
National Assembly moves to Paris Conservative members start quitting because they didn’t like the violence and the uncontrolled masses = the assembly becomes more radical
Sir Edmund Burke (1790, English) – write a conservative response to the revolution in France defending the aristocracy...it can’t really be reflections because the revolution isn’t over. It says why the aristocracy is good, defends inherited rights, and ”predicts” dictatorship and chaos in France. He advised England to slow down on its own reforms, not to give the common people too many rights to prevent chaos
How to Finance a New Government –> Confiscate Church Land (1790) also create a constitution “Civil Constitution of the Clergy” (1790)
- They secularize religion… right…
- National Church - 83 Bishops, abolished convents and monasteries (sold the land to pay the church men
- The clergy were forbidden to be loyal to the pope, but it was still Catholicism, in a way…
- This split the country through all social classes
o The pope condemned the act
o Half of the clergy refused to take the oath (they were called the “refractory” clergy)
- After the revolution, it gave the church more power
Print Assignats – Bonds (quasi printing money
- National Constituent Assembly, Revolution, not War Bonds (their collateral [“Pfand”] was Church Land)
- They lost almost 100% of their value in 5 years (1790-1795)
- The government printed more money INFLATION!!!
o People started using the bonds as money, rather than trading them in for money, which caused even more inflation
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, each diesis had its own state appointed Bishops, Archbishops were forbidden, the Jurying Clergy were the ones who took the oath
- Priest are elected by the district assembly
Eventually Louis XVI “accepts” the Constitution and the National Assembly (1790)
- The nobility was abolished, but the lower class still isn’t getting the vote
The whole of France is divided into self-governing provinces (83 of them !!!)
- Devolution weakened power, it is a form of democracy, BUT the country is largely unable to band together during, for example, a time of war
The French Constitution of 1791 A bourgeoisie Government
- The King lost power, had similar power to the House of Lords (could suspend government legislation and implementation of laws (for up to 4 years), but couldn’t completely veto it)
- The Single Chamber National Assembly could grant taxation, and was judicially independent
Active Citizen – pays taxes = three days labour and could vote
Passive Citizen – 1/3 of adult males were denied the franchise (domestic servants were also excluded)
Newly elected Legislative assembly – their goal was to make sure the country was not turned over to the mob (to stop mob rule)
June 1791 – Royal family tried to flee, caught at the boarder
The First Coalition and the Brunswick manifesto (3.8.1792)
- Duke of Brunswick- if the royal family is harmed, then Paris will be leveled … but he’s in Prussia. this undermines the National Assembly
Leopold I (Austria) – threatens the French government, if they harm the King (and his Austrian queen...) then he will attack if Prussia, UK, Spain, and Piedmont also do
*** But he doesn’t actually plan on fighting because what are the chances of ALL of the other power taking up arms...***
Jacobin vs. Girondin (who were in favour of war and were a sub, more radical, group of the Jacobins)
- Girondins see Leopold’s claim as a declaration of war and they in turn declare war on Austria, and get crushed on the Field which they blame on the King
o The Brunswick manifesto to protect the King
The French army was weak anyway because half of their officers had emigrated and many of the aristocratic families no longer sent one of their sons to become officers in the army anymore
The King was in the Palace in detention, but not under arrest or their direct control, this changed with the Brunswick manifesto
The French Revolution: the “Radical Phase”
The National Convention
- Girondin Rule (1792-1792)
- Jacobin Rule (1793-1794) – ruled by Robespierre, Danton and Marat (“Reign of Terror”), they incite the mobs to storm Toulerries and take the King prisoner (2. Phase Revolution)
- Thermadorian Reaction (1794-1795)
Causes of the Instability in France (1792 – 1795 [when the bonds were worth nothing]
1. War
2. Economic Crisis
3. Political Division
4. Attitude and actions of the monarchy and the court
5. Fear of a Counter revolution
6. Religious decisions
Jacobins started as a middle class debating society
Sans Culottes Parisian working class, supportive of the Jacobins and their values
The September massacre (1792) – the “dark” side of the Revolution
- Anybody who was thought to be on the wrong side (anti-revolutionary) was a potential target
The National Convention (September 1792) the government tries to remake itself
- 1st act- abolish the monarchy in hopes of calming things down and stopping the killings
The Decree of Fraternity – they offer to help people in other countries with their own revolutions seeing as they are such experts in matters of revolution
- “When France Sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold”
- ***Political spectrum diagram***
Sans Culottes backed the leftists in the end
Politics of the National Convention Montegnards vs. Girondists
France declare war on Britain, Holland and Spain (1793)
Vote to Kill the King (387 to 334 in the National Convention)
Attempting to control the Growing Crisis
- Revolutionary Tribunal – to try suspected counter revolutionists (= STASI)
- People were sent to check on the army (Representatives of Mission)
- The keep watch in foreigners (Watch Committees)
- Anyone who returned after being exiles could be tried and executed immediately
They printed more money, even though they were already bankrupt
Committee of Public Safety (CPS) – the oversee the speed up government (led by Robespierre)
- Tried to created a controlled Economy to control prices, control hunger, to wage wars, rationing was introduced
Committee of General Security (CGS) – pursuing suspected counter Revolutionaries (also Robespierre)
Marat was killed by his mistress in the bath tub because he wasn’t radical enough
The Levee en Masse – army based on merit
Legislation passed by the National Convention (September 1793)
- Law of general Maximum – limit s prices and wages trying to control inflation
- Law of suspects – two weeks later anybody not displaying enthusiastic support for the republic could be placed under arrest
The Reign of Terror – Terror is nothing other than justice: prompt, severe, inflexible – Robespierre
- “Let Terror be the order of the day.” Revolutionary tribunal of Paris alone executed 2,639 victims in 15 months (6 a day)
- Total number of victims nationwide during this cycle was 20,00
- Mainly lower and working classes executed
Resistance to the Revolution in the Country side (1793)
- 300,000 troupes needed for wars, They didn’t want to go
- They were still being highly taxed
- They were staunchly catholic and didn’t like what happened to the clergy
- They didn’t benefit from the selling of the church land
- Targets: Local governments officials, National Guardians, Jurying priests
Religious terror
- De-Christianization
- The catholic church was linked with real or potential counter revolutions
They changed the calendar to the Republican Calendar
o Abolished Sundays and religious holidays
o Months are named after seasonal things
o 7 day weeks replaced with 10-day decades
o Yearly calendar started with the start of the republic (July 19th –August 17th = Thermidor)
Returned to the Gregorian calendar in 1806
Banned the public exercise of religion
Backlash – people get pissed
- It alienated most of the population (especially people in rural areas)
- Robespierre never supported it, but he didn’t stop it “silence is consent”
o He persuaded the convention to reaffirm the principle of religious toleration, but he never enforced it
- Decree on the “Liberty of Cults”, but it’s only a cover story, he could always say that they were built on religious toleration
The Terror intensified March to July 1794
- Jacques Hebert and his followers were executed in March 1794, Danton and the “Indulgents” were executed in April 1794
- Law of 22 Prairial (open execution law, no imprisonments, either freed or chopped) Are you an enemy of the people?
- 1500 were executed between June and July
... we could make bread out of ash or very small rocks...
During this time, ironically, the French army was kicking some ass while the nut balls were chopping off heads in Paris. The main thing it had going for it were the number of people and they had true believers. They fought because they really believed
The Thermadorian reaction - July 26th Robespierre is going nuts and has his Hitler moment holds a speech ... and finally the people are suspicious and the Convention arrests him (July 26th)
July 28th Robespierre is tried and was a head shorter
The Cultural Revolution brought about by the Convention
- Abolition of slavery
- Introduce metric system
- Sanction divorce
- Etc.
Thermadorian Reaction
- Curtailed the power of the committee for Public Safety
- Closed the Jacobin Club
- Churches were reopened
- Economic restriction were lifted in favor of lasses faire policies
- August 1795 a new constitution is written
o They are afraid of another Robespierre so they set it up so that no one person is in power
o A more conservative republicanism
Directory
- Outlaw Paris commune
- Law of 22 Prairial were revoked
- People involved in org, terror were now attacked “White Terror”
- Inflation continues
- Rule by rich bourgeoisie liberals
- Self-indulgence – frivolous culture, salons return , wild fashions
- Political corruption
- Revival Catholicism
- 5-man executive committee (to avoid dictatorship)
- Tried to avoid the danger of a one-house legislature (have to be married or widowed to be on the Council of Elders (250 members)
- Council 500, initiates legislation
- All males over 21 who paid taxed voted
- This doesn’t go over well CHAOS (big surprise there)
- Gracchus Babeuf and the Conspiracy of Equals = communism
- Napoleon is able to stage a coup
- Directory lasts until 1799
...3,058 words later we are done with the French Revolution... Lovely
Thursday, 26 November 2009
French Revolution: Part 1
I know ALOT of people missed the first part of the French Revolution, so here it is and I'll upload the rest when we're done.
~Claire
The French Revolution – Evolution of the French State
Three Stages
1. Age of Montesquieu (Checks and Balances)
a. Constitutional Monarchy
b. 1789-1792
i. National Assembly (1789-1791)
ii. Tennis Court Oath
iii. Storming of the Bastille
iv. Declaration of the Rights of man
v. 1791-1792 à Legislative assembly
vi. Two Factions à Jacobin vs. Girodin
2. Age of Rousseau (Age of the Republic) – you can’t have a constitutional monarchy if you cut off the monarch’s head
a. Committee of Public Safety (aka Stasi) à Reign of Terror
i. National Convention (1792-1795)
ii. Oligarchy “Directory” (1795-1799)
3. Age of Voltaire
a. Napoleonic Enlightened Despot (1799-1815)
Louis XIV dies à Louis XV (1715-1774)
- Nobility gains power and influence under Louis XV
- He’s not that interested in running the country (ministers and mistresses have influence e.g. Mme. Pompadour – advised him on foreign policy and who to appoint)
- Parlement is reinstated à High Court
o Power to approve or disprove royal decrees
o Made up of nobles of the robe, not sword (gentry)
- Seven Years War and the War of Austrian Succession
o Wanted to raise taxes, Parlement said no
- 1768 à appoints Rene de Maupeou, chancellor to subdue the judicial opposition
o He abolished Parlement and exiles its members
o Creates new one made of royal officials (who do what the King wants…)
o Outrage in the Philosophes
1774 – Louis XVI becomes king
- Reverses Maupeou’s moves – dissolves new Parlement and reinstates the old one
- Old one is troubles by infighting
Overview of France 1789
- Largest country in the world
- Most advanced, wealthiest, but not per capita (America of it’s day)
- Most exports
- Culture dominated
- Science at the forefront
- Society divided into three medieval factions
Three Estates
1. Clergy – Catholic (exempt from taxes, 1% of the population, 20% of the land)
a. Church men often involved in politics because the king appoints bishops à who appoint lower clergy
2. Nobility – (exempt from taxes, 2-4%, 25% of the land)
a. Retained medieval right to tax their peasants (who also encountered the royal tax as well)
3. Everybody else(Bourgeoisie, Middle class, peasants), owned about 40% of the land and still obligated to their local Corvéeà had to put in so many days a year working for their noble masters and nobles also held the hunting rights on their land (that of the peasants)
a. Church tax
b. Taille (land tax per capita)
c. Income tax
d. Poll tax
e. Salt tax
***Trigger of the Revolution***
- The Middle Class had economic power and they wanted political power to go with it
Americaà fighting a foreign power, France, fighting a domestic power
Everybody had to pay taxes, no exceptions, so nobody had a reason to be upset in that respect of inequality
Letters of cachet – they could grab you and put you in prison without a warrant
Causes of the Revolution
o Middle Class wanted a say, challenged power, fallout from the American Revolution (of they can, so can we)
o French Nobility/ Government helped that Americans (from the 3rd estates pocket) to get one back against the British
1. Ideas – The Enlightenment – social contract, John Locke, Adam Smith, Rousseau
2. Distortion of the three estates
a. Not real representation (5% control everybody)
b. Was there really a huge rift between the middle class and the nobility? (you could buy titles, marriage etc. )
c. Aristocrats came back from America and advocated it in France
3. ***Financial Mismanagement*** (France it Bankrupt, colonial wars w/ England, etc.)
a. The Government couldn’t declare bankruptcy because the money was on the people who weren’t in the government
b. Had no way to create additional income except to raise taxes…and that didn’t go over too well….SOOOOOOO
c. REVOLUTION (!!!)
- Inflation (1730-1780)
o Prices of goods go up by 65% but wages only go up 22%
o Increased taxes ONLY on the lower class
§ Necker tried to get Louis XVI to raise taxes on nobility, he got fired…
- 1787 – Assembly of Notables (Louis XVI)
o Parlement is trying to stop him from increasing taxes
o Notables refuse to give up they exemptions
o Assembly controls finances (controlled by the nobles) Louis Refuses
o Everything controlled by the Estates General
§ Louis refuses, everything is controlled by decree (including income tax)
o Nobles block taxes through Parlement
o Louis tried to exile judges
§ Calls the Estates General into session (1788) and it meets in 1789
§ Louis doubles the number of representatives for the 3rd estate
§ Estates General will vote by estate, therefore the middle class vote will be diluted because they will still only have one vote.
France is currently experiencing the worst depression in Centuries
- 3rd estate refuse to vote
o Declares itself in June to be a national assembly à Louis XVI locks them out of the General Assembly so they go to a tennis court, take the oath where they swear to stay together until they have a constitution
o Louis brings in troops à king +nobles vs. 3rd estate
July 14thm 1789 à storming of the Bastille, not to free prisoners but to get mentions, but their weren’t as many as they thought
Lafayette was the leader
The storming of the Bastille saved the National Assembly
The Great Fear – did not remain contained to Paris
- Lower classes attacked manor homes
- No taxes paid
- Got rid of feudalism
- Everybody is taxes
- Ended things like the special hunting rights
- Peasants became a force for stability
August 1789 – Declaration of the right of Man and Citizen (influenced by America)
- Liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, freedom, and equality, freedom of religion and expression
- Freedom = anything that doesn’t harm anybody else
- Separation of power
- Citizenship for ALL (including women, surfs, etc.)
- National Assembly started to fall apart due to infighting
Bourgeois Phase (1789-1792) – aka The Age of Montesquieu
Crane Brinton – Anatomy of a revolution – modern historians see some value in what he wrote, but modern revolutions tend to work a little differently now
- He borrowed his terms from pathology (revolution is like a disease that spreads)
- Symptoms of a revolution, proceeds to a crisis stage, which ends when the fever breaks
- After the break there is a period of convalescence, sometimes interrupted by a relapse or two before full recovery
Basic Principles
- Only if people from all social classes are discontented
- People feel held down
- People are hopeful about the future but are forces to accept less than what they hoped for
- Growing bitterness between classes
- Social classes closest to one another ten to be the most hostile
- Intellectuals and thinkers give up on society
- Government does not respond to society
- Rulers begin to doubt themselves
- Government unable to support itself or get support from another groups to save themselves
- Government cannot organize its finances correctly
Main reason for revolution: breaded prices went from 50% of their income to 80% of their income in ONE year
Rich people can borrow money…poor can’t
Under all previous Louis’, they never spent even 100% of their budget…under Louis XVI government spending skyrocketed to 160% of their income (!!!)
And for the first time, it's acutally retained some of my outline form... nice
~Claire
The French Revolution – Evolution of the French State
Three Stages
1. Age of Montesquieu (Checks and Balances)
a. Constitutional Monarchy
b. 1789-1792
i. National Assembly (1789-1791)
ii. Tennis Court Oath
iii. Storming of the Bastille
iv. Declaration of the Rights of man
v. 1791-1792 à Legislative assembly
vi. Two Factions à Jacobin vs. Girodin
2. Age of Rousseau (Age of the Republic) – you can’t have a constitutional monarchy if you cut off the monarch’s head
a. Committee of Public Safety (aka Stasi) à Reign of Terror
i. National Convention (1792-1795)
ii. Oligarchy “Directory” (1795-1799)
3. Age of Voltaire
a. Napoleonic Enlightened Despot (1799-1815)
Louis XIV dies à Louis XV (1715-1774)
- Nobility gains power and influence under Louis XV
- He’s not that interested in running the country (ministers and mistresses have influence e.g. Mme. Pompadour – advised him on foreign policy and who to appoint)
- Parlement is reinstated à High Court
o Power to approve or disprove royal decrees
o Made up of nobles of the robe, not sword (gentry)
- Seven Years War and the War of Austrian Succession
o Wanted to raise taxes, Parlement said no
- 1768 à appoints Rene de Maupeou, chancellor to subdue the judicial opposition
o He abolished Parlement and exiles its members
o Creates new one made of royal officials (who do what the King wants…)
o Outrage in the Philosophes
1774 – Louis XVI becomes king
- Reverses Maupeou’s moves – dissolves new Parlement and reinstates the old one
- Old one is troubles by infighting
Overview of France 1789
- Largest country in the world
- Most advanced, wealthiest, but not per capita (America of it’s day)
- Most exports
- Culture dominated
- Science at the forefront
- Society divided into three medieval factions
Three Estates
1. Clergy – Catholic (exempt from taxes, 1% of the population, 20% of the land)
a. Church men often involved in politics because the king appoints bishops à who appoint lower clergy
2. Nobility – (exempt from taxes, 2-4%, 25% of the land)
a. Retained medieval right to tax their peasants (who also encountered the royal tax as well)
3. Everybody else(Bourgeoisie, Middle class, peasants), owned about 40% of the land and still obligated to their local Corvéeà had to put in so many days a year working for their noble masters and nobles also held the hunting rights on their land (that of the peasants)
a. Church tax
b. Taille (land tax per capita)
c. Income tax
d. Poll tax
e. Salt tax
***Trigger of the Revolution***
- The Middle Class had economic power and they wanted political power to go with it
Americaà fighting a foreign power, France, fighting a domestic power
Everybody had to pay taxes, no exceptions, so nobody had a reason to be upset in that respect of inequality
Letters of cachet – they could grab you and put you in prison without a warrant
Causes of the Revolution
o Middle Class wanted a say, challenged power, fallout from the American Revolution (of they can, so can we)
o French Nobility/ Government helped that Americans (from the 3rd estates pocket) to get one back against the British
1. Ideas – The Enlightenment – social contract, John Locke, Adam Smith, Rousseau
2. Distortion of the three estates
a. Not real representation (5% control everybody)
b. Was there really a huge rift between the middle class and the nobility? (you could buy titles, marriage etc. )
c. Aristocrats came back from America and advocated it in France
3. ***Financial Mismanagement*** (France it Bankrupt, colonial wars w/ England, etc.)
a. The Government couldn’t declare bankruptcy because the money was on the people who weren’t in the government
b. Had no way to create additional income except to raise taxes…and that didn’t go over too well….SOOOOOOO
c. REVOLUTION (!!!)
- Inflation (1730-1780)
o Prices of goods go up by 65% but wages only go up 22%
o Increased taxes ONLY on the lower class
§ Necker tried to get Louis XVI to raise taxes on nobility, he got fired…
- 1787 – Assembly of Notables (Louis XVI)
o Parlement is trying to stop him from increasing taxes
o Notables refuse to give up they exemptions
o Assembly controls finances (controlled by the nobles) Louis Refuses
o Everything controlled by the Estates General
§ Louis refuses, everything is controlled by decree (including income tax)
o Nobles block taxes through Parlement
o Louis tried to exile judges
§ Calls the Estates General into session (1788) and it meets in 1789
§ Louis doubles the number of representatives for the 3rd estate
§ Estates General will vote by estate, therefore the middle class vote will be diluted because they will still only have one vote.
France is currently experiencing the worst depression in Centuries
- 3rd estate refuse to vote
o Declares itself in June to be a national assembly à Louis XVI locks them out of the General Assembly so they go to a tennis court, take the oath where they swear to stay together until they have a constitution
o Louis brings in troops à king +nobles vs. 3rd estate
July 14thm 1789 à storming of the Bastille, not to free prisoners but to get mentions, but their weren’t as many as they thought
Lafayette was the leader
The storming of the Bastille saved the National Assembly
The Great Fear – did not remain contained to Paris
- Lower classes attacked manor homes
- No taxes paid
- Got rid of feudalism
- Everybody is taxes
- Ended things like the special hunting rights
- Peasants became a force for stability
August 1789 – Declaration of the right of Man and Citizen (influenced by America)
- Liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, freedom, and equality, freedom of religion and expression
- Freedom = anything that doesn’t harm anybody else
- Separation of power
- Citizenship for ALL (including women, surfs, etc.)
- National Assembly started to fall apart due to infighting
Bourgeois Phase (1789-1792) – aka The Age of Montesquieu
Crane Brinton – Anatomy of a revolution – modern historians see some value in what he wrote, but modern revolutions tend to work a little differently now
- He borrowed his terms from pathology (revolution is like a disease that spreads)
- Symptoms of a revolution, proceeds to a crisis stage, which ends when the fever breaks
- After the break there is a period of convalescence, sometimes interrupted by a relapse or two before full recovery
Basic Principles
- Only if people from all social classes are discontented
- People feel held down
- People are hopeful about the future but are forces to accept less than what they hoped for
- Growing bitterness between classes
- Social classes closest to one another ten to be the most hostile
- Intellectuals and thinkers give up on society
- Government does not respond to society
- Rulers begin to doubt themselves
- Government unable to support itself or get support from another groups to save themselves
- Government cannot organize its finances correctly
Main reason for revolution: breaded prices went from 50% of their income to 80% of their income in ONE year
Rich people can borrow money…poor can’t
Under all previous Louis’, they never spent even 100% of their budget…under Louis XVI government spending skyrocketed to 160% of their income (!!!)
And for the first time, it's acutally retained some of my outline form... nice
Monday, 23 November 2009
18th Century Economy and Society
18th Century Economy and Society
I. Agricultural Revolution – started in the 1700’s
a. 1700
i. Artisans vs. peasants – peasants were poorer, worked the land, the artisans were handy workers, failed harvest once or twice every ten years (85% were peasantry)
ii. Increased population – urbanization
b. Open Field System – agriculture was often done openly, no division, farming used to be lord system, this still was, but hand to change that because they were over working the fields
1. They started allowing the fields to fallow, they were in danger of starvation but they had to do it
2. no major boom in production in eastern Europe
ii. Started in England, Netherlands, France
1. Looked to increase yields of crops
2. New methods of cultivation
3. Selective breeding
c. Science and Technology – The Low Countries were big led by the Netherlands – they specialized certain regions to specific jobs
1. Enclosed fields – protect your crops
2. Rotating crops
3. Fertilizer
4. Wider diversity of crops
ii. Dutch became the world leaders in Drainage - Vermuyden
d. England – 14% increase of the number of people who are working the land, yield increase = 300% in less than 200 years
i. Charles Townsend – ambassador to the Netherlands, stole drainage ideas
ii. Jethro Tull - 1674-1741 – invested a seed drill, push for using horses for plowing instead of oxen
iii. Bakewell - was to live stock what Tull was to plants, pioneered selective breeding in England
e. Enclosure movement – 1700’s originally done to increase wool profits, but spreads
i. Large farms vs. small farms
ii. Parliament passes over 3000 Enclosure Acts from 1700’s to the 1800’s
1. Can continue to farm common land, but they aren’t all needed to farm on the big farms Urbanization
2. Women – get screwed, had no more job opportunities on farms, in cities they could either be prostitutes or domestic jobs
3. Gentry – rent out their land, have people work on their land – many struggles between the gentry and the peasants
a. Game Laws - hunting laws, one could only hunt on the land with the owner permission
Traditional View Modern View
Urbanization Affects on enclosure slightly exaggerated, 2/3 of all farmers were landless anyway, before the push for enclosure, hardly anyone else went through the enclosure age as much as England
Poverty
Karl Marx
Agricultural Revolution
iii. Effects of agricultural Revolution
1. Increases population – 120 mil. – 190 mil. (Europe from 1700’s to 1800’s)
2. Urbanization
3. Changes basic village life [role of peasants]
4. Distinctive hierarchy
5. Price of agricultural good goes down better nourishment, more money to spend on consumer goods more demand for consumer goods
iv. Corn Laws – high tariffs on foreign grain
II. Proto-Industrialization (Cottage Industry) – what the women could do
a. putting out of the creation of consumer goods (textiles) “piece work”
b. how does this lead to industrialization? it is more efficient to work in a factory
c. this takes off in England first because of all the enclosure acts
d. in 1500, half of the textiles were produced in the country side, 1600s, it if a much higher %, it will spread to Europe, but will eventually be undermined by inventions
i. Kay -> flying-shuttle – weaver could use just one hand, much faster
ii. Hargreaves – invents spinning jenny
iii. Spinning jenny – creates the pedal for the spinning wheel
iv. Arkwright -> water-frame - improves thread spinning, eventually use steam power for looms
v. Crompton –> spinning mule
III. Atlantic Economy – the economy that went across the Atlantic, between colonies and the mother countries
a. Mercantilism
i. Dominant product – built around sugar- the foundation of the Atlantic economy (either as sugar or run) also indigo, cotton, tobacco
ii. The slave trade also developed to farm sugar NOT COTTON until the 1800’s
1. In the Caribbean (West Indies)
2. Favorable balance of trade allows for more Bullionism. The more you import the more people have to pay you when you can export it again after manufacturing the raw goods into products
3. Most countries gained monopolies over certain product areas don’t have to worry about competition within their countries, can set their own prices if there is no competition and can make more money
4. Countries also imported less so that they had to spend less so they manufactured everything in their countries and colonies and set very high tariffs
5. BUT if every country does this, then eventually trade would fall apart
b. During the 1700’s, GB becomes the main power because they have to best navy in the world which they can use to dominate trade, they also developed the Bank of England in 1694, could distribute capital to businesses
i. Act of Union (GB is created 1707)
c. GB has a more Liberal economy (more free market) compared to its European rivals
d. Navigation Act – control over who how and where they trade, all products coming into the country have to come in on British ships smuggling British monopoly over trading Britain
e. Triangular Trade – England, West Indies, Africa, Massachusetts
f. Letters of Marque – governments gave people permission to check ships (privateers) and when there were no more jobs for them, they turned to piracy
g. The Dutch begin to fade during this time, by the time we get to the 1800’s the Dutch are out of it three wars with England damage them, then the war of the Spanish succession ruins them 1664 – they lost New Amsterdam
i. They turned their focus from trade to banking instead of trading their finance it loaning money create a central bank and the first stock market in Europe create a currency perfect the use of paper currency
h. Slave Trade – intrinsic part of the Atlantic Economy – in the 16 and 1700’s approx. 10 million African slaves will be transported to the New World
i. “Fritish” granted monopolies on the slave trade in their countries
1. Set up forts of the west coast of Africa and took the slaves from other Africans.
2. Eventually, by the 1730’s independent slave traders had control
3. Between 20% and 33% of slaves died during the middle passage
i. “Bubbles” – when economies inflate and then implode
i. South Sea Bubble – in the 1700’s, both Britain and France had very fragile economies because they had been fighting each other. Both governments tired to find a solution to get themselves out of debt
1. Britain – in 1719 they give a company the right to take over their national debt (sell their national debt) South Sea Company
a. They had given the company the monopoly on the slave trade in Latin American – they would gain the interest on the debt
b. The investors in the company were not making the money back fast enough, so the company converts the debt into stock that people can buy…erm…sound familiar?
i. First it gain in value, then it…crashed in 1720. Again, sound familiar? undermined the British governments credibility
ii. Mississippi Bubble – the Mississippi Company was given a monopoly over the French Mississippi area trade with Louisiana
1. They take over French debt in exchange for stock…yeah, ditto stock inflates and collapses in 1720
a. So bad that this is one of the factors that will lead to the French Revolution
j. Colonial War Period (1689-1815) – France and GB, but the French government starts collapsing in 1783
i. Lots of fights in the colonies over territory and maritime issues
ii. France had the largest army on land and Britain had the most effective navy, France tried to enlist Spain as allies, but both Spain and the Netherlands were in decline, essentially these were World Wars
iii. Example: War of the Spain Succession (1701-1713) – France loose, but not only in Europe but also in the colonies especially in Canada, Spain therefore also lose its slave trade in Africa, Britain end up getting all of the northern colonies
iv. War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739) – allowed Britain to send one ship a year through Panama
1. Treaty of Utrecht – Britain could trade with the Spanish in Latin America, but Spain then accused them of smuggling they cut off the captains ear violation of British sovereignty George II declares war on Spain War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – declared a draw…for 6 years
2. 7 Years War (1754-63) aka the French and Indian War – biggest war of the 18th Century, involves most of Europe and it was started by George Washington (Fort Duquesne – aka Pittsburg) British governed by the Whigs, send someone to Pittsburg to control the French, Washington loses, the British take it as an insult and start a war The Whigs are replaced by the Tories, new Prime Minister William Pitt he decides to pursue war on North America defeat Frances Navy on high seas, could no longer attack Britain and were gone a competition --Frances Trade is 1/16th of what it was before, sugar trade gone, control over French ports in India taken over by the British, Britain seizes Cuba and Philippines, war ends in 1763
a. Terms of the Treaty of Paris:
i. France loses all its North American Colonies and everything east of the Mississippi, all go to Britain
ii. France give Spain the Louisiana Territory in compensation for being an ally
iii. France has to accept Britain’s domination in India
iv. Spain is Forced to give Florida to Britain
b. Britain managed to screw the advantage up American Revolution (1775-1783) – they strip France of all its American colonies in the first treaty of Paris, in the second treaty of Paris Britain lose a lot of their colonies after the American Revolution (French helped America in the Revolution
k. Colonial Latin America – Spain and Portugal
i. In the 1700’s Spain are still a large part of the Latin American Economy
1. All the gold is gone, but there still is sugar (Silver deposits in Mexico and Peru) - by the end of the 1700’s they are supplying half the worlds silver
2. Spain is able to recover under Philipp VI and their navy ends up being third after France and Britain
3. The problem with Spain and Spanish Colonies was that there were three levels of society in the New World –
a. Creole – Spanish born in America tried to keep up the Spanish ways of life in the colonies, were the aristocracy (20% on the population)
b. Mestizos – Children born to Spanish fathers and Indian Mothers (30% of Spanish America)
c. Amerindians – native people – hardest labor, Latin American Serfs (40-50%)
d. Some black slaves on the sugar plantations
ii. Portuguese had slaves in brazil for sugar farming (50% of Brazilian population were of African descent)
IV. Life in the 18th Century
a. Marriage 1750 (date because that was the start of the first Industrialization)
i. Nuclear Families – Parents begin to move back in with their children because they were the only people they could depend on (Nuclear = two generations three-generation-household = when grandparents move back in primarily in lower classes)
ii. Before industrialization people tended to marry LATER because children were needed to help and couples couldn’t marry until they could support themselves (often not until parents died), girls needed a dowry, something to bring into the marriage
iii. People often had to ask the local land owner for permission to marry (especially in Prussia and the Germanic lands) if they make them wait until they’re older before they start having children then that controls/limits how many they can have
iv. Most couples had up to six children if they lived to 45 (middle/lower class) child mortality was HIGH (20%, 1 of every 5) in good areas. In poor areas it was 1/3. Even if you survived childhood, your chances of reaching adulthood and reproducing were only about 50%
b. Post- 1750 proto-industrialization
i. Cottage industry
ii. It doesn’t take them as long to become independent so they can marry younger
1. More children
2. Urbanization – people don’t have to worry so much, no more restrictions and checks by the neighbors, not such an intimate atmosphere
3. No longer need to constantly evaluate economic situations so more marrying for love, permission not so needed
4. Increase in bastards
5. Chastity, depending on your class, takes a beating, bit of a social breakdown
6. Lack of illegitimate births in the lower classes because they could now get married
iii. Working in the city wasn’t much better, they were very poor, women were discriminated against
1. Attitude towards children changed
2. Developed more mothering instincts
3. Poor mother breastfed their children for much longer
a. Upper class tend to move away from breastfeeding their own children, instead they hire wet nurses
iv. Infanticide – this was condemned but not all that uncommon especially among the poor
1. Orphanages were created – “foundling hospitals” – the first ones in Paris by 1770 1/3 of the babies in Paris were left on church steps, 1/3 of those were left by married couples who couldn’t afford it, 50-90% of the babies at the hospitals died
c. Child Rearing - changes especially in the lower class
i. Used to be – breaking the child’s will, never got attached because mortality rates were very high
ii. Later- morality rates dropped so they began to establish relationships with their children, children began to leave the home to take on apprenticeships, women had to go into domestic jobs - > often they were abused by the masters, got pregnant, ended up on streets, turned to thievery
d. Education – the idea of mass education begins to take root
i. Aristocracy had a head start
ii. Now in the 1700-1800’s there are special schools “little schools” =elementary education, and that was as far as they got
iii. Everyone got enough education to be able to read the bible, Prussia set an example (1717 compulsory education)
iv. Scotland – 1600 – 1 in 6 could read. In 1800 90%
e. Life expectancy explodes in the 1700’s goes from 25 to 35
i. Better nutrition – potatoes, the upper classes didn’t see a huge gain compared to the lower classes – they eat mainly meat, very few vegetables
ii. Better sanitation – small pox eradicated Edward Jenner (discovered that if you get cow pox you don’t get small pox), lack of plague
iii. Better clothes
iv. Improvements in housing - improvements in ventilation, creation of the first mental hospital
f. Religious reforms
i. Pietism – put the emotion back into religion, wanted to see enthusiasm in prayer and preaching – wanted to have more participation, bibles reading and study and channeling these ideas into their everyday lives (Germany)
ii. John Wesley – (England 1703-1791) – Methodist – influenced by Pietism – he was concerned that people were too complacent - most enlightenment people were deists, he didn’t like this. He takes his message to the common people, to the fields, to large numbers of people, also rejects the Calvinists (Predestination) as well as the deist if you wanted it and worked for it you could save your soul
I. Agricultural Revolution – started in the 1700’s
a. 1700
i. Artisans vs. peasants – peasants were poorer, worked the land, the artisans were handy workers, failed harvest once or twice every ten years (85% were peasantry)
ii. Increased population – urbanization
b. Open Field System – agriculture was often done openly, no division, farming used to be lord system, this still was, but hand to change that because they were over working the fields
1. They started allowing the fields to fallow, they were in danger of starvation but they had to do it
2. no major boom in production in eastern Europe
ii. Started in England, Netherlands, France
1. Looked to increase yields of crops
2. New methods of cultivation
3. Selective breeding
c. Science and Technology – The Low Countries were big led by the Netherlands – they specialized certain regions to specific jobs
1. Enclosed fields – protect your crops
2. Rotating crops
3. Fertilizer
4. Wider diversity of crops
ii. Dutch became the world leaders in Drainage - Vermuyden
d. England – 14% increase of the number of people who are working the land, yield increase = 300% in less than 200 years
i. Charles Townsend – ambassador to the Netherlands, stole drainage ideas
ii. Jethro Tull - 1674-1741 – invested a seed drill, push for using horses for plowing instead of oxen
iii. Bakewell - was to live stock what Tull was to plants, pioneered selective breeding in England
e. Enclosure movement – 1700’s originally done to increase wool profits, but spreads
i. Large farms vs. small farms
ii. Parliament passes over 3000 Enclosure Acts from 1700’s to the 1800’s
1. Can continue to farm common land, but they aren’t all needed to farm on the big farms Urbanization
2. Women – get screwed, had no more job opportunities on farms, in cities they could either be prostitutes or domestic jobs
3. Gentry – rent out their land, have people work on their land – many struggles between the gentry and the peasants
a. Game Laws - hunting laws, one could only hunt on the land with the owner permission
Traditional View Modern View
Urbanization Affects on enclosure slightly exaggerated, 2/3 of all farmers were landless anyway, before the push for enclosure, hardly anyone else went through the enclosure age as much as England
Poverty
Karl Marx
Agricultural Revolution
iii. Effects of agricultural Revolution
1. Increases population – 120 mil. – 190 mil. (Europe from 1700’s to 1800’s)
2. Urbanization
3. Changes basic village life [role of peasants]
4. Distinctive hierarchy
5. Price of agricultural good goes down better nourishment, more money to spend on consumer goods more demand for consumer goods
iv. Corn Laws – high tariffs on foreign grain
II. Proto-Industrialization (Cottage Industry) – what the women could do
a. putting out of the creation of consumer goods (textiles) “piece work”
b. how does this lead to industrialization? it is more efficient to work in a factory
c. this takes off in England first because of all the enclosure acts
d. in 1500, half of the textiles were produced in the country side, 1600s, it if a much higher %, it will spread to Europe, but will eventually be undermined by inventions
i. Kay -> flying-shuttle – weaver could use just one hand, much faster
ii. Hargreaves – invents spinning jenny
iii. Spinning jenny – creates the pedal for the spinning wheel
iv. Arkwright -> water-frame - improves thread spinning, eventually use steam power for looms
v. Crompton –> spinning mule
III. Atlantic Economy – the economy that went across the Atlantic, between colonies and the mother countries
a. Mercantilism
i. Dominant product – built around sugar- the foundation of the Atlantic economy (either as sugar or run) also indigo, cotton, tobacco
ii. The slave trade also developed to farm sugar NOT COTTON until the 1800’s
1. In the Caribbean (West Indies)
2. Favorable balance of trade allows for more Bullionism. The more you import the more people have to pay you when you can export it again after manufacturing the raw goods into products
3. Most countries gained monopolies over certain product areas don’t have to worry about competition within their countries, can set their own prices if there is no competition and can make more money
4. Countries also imported less so that they had to spend less so they manufactured everything in their countries and colonies and set very high tariffs
5. BUT if every country does this, then eventually trade would fall apart
b. During the 1700’s, GB becomes the main power because they have to best navy in the world which they can use to dominate trade, they also developed the Bank of England in 1694, could distribute capital to businesses
i. Act of Union (GB is created 1707)
c. GB has a more Liberal economy (more free market) compared to its European rivals
d. Navigation Act – control over who how and where they trade, all products coming into the country have to come in on British ships smuggling British monopoly over trading Britain
e. Triangular Trade – England, West Indies, Africa, Massachusetts
f. Letters of Marque – governments gave people permission to check ships (privateers) and when there were no more jobs for them, they turned to piracy
g. The Dutch begin to fade during this time, by the time we get to the 1800’s the Dutch are out of it three wars with England damage them, then the war of the Spanish succession ruins them 1664 – they lost New Amsterdam
i. They turned their focus from trade to banking instead of trading their finance it loaning money create a central bank and the first stock market in Europe create a currency perfect the use of paper currency
h. Slave Trade – intrinsic part of the Atlantic Economy – in the 16 and 1700’s approx. 10 million African slaves will be transported to the New World
i. “Fritish” granted monopolies on the slave trade in their countries
1. Set up forts of the west coast of Africa and took the slaves from other Africans.
2. Eventually, by the 1730’s independent slave traders had control
3. Between 20% and 33% of slaves died during the middle passage
i. “Bubbles” – when economies inflate and then implode
i. South Sea Bubble – in the 1700’s, both Britain and France had very fragile economies because they had been fighting each other. Both governments tired to find a solution to get themselves out of debt
1. Britain – in 1719 they give a company the right to take over their national debt (sell their national debt) South Sea Company
a. They had given the company the monopoly on the slave trade in Latin American – they would gain the interest on the debt
b. The investors in the company were not making the money back fast enough, so the company converts the debt into stock that people can buy…erm…sound familiar?
i. First it gain in value, then it…crashed in 1720. Again, sound familiar? undermined the British governments credibility
ii. Mississippi Bubble – the Mississippi Company was given a monopoly over the French Mississippi area trade with Louisiana
1. They take over French debt in exchange for stock…yeah, ditto stock inflates and collapses in 1720
a. So bad that this is one of the factors that will lead to the French Revolution
j. Colonial War Period (1689-1815) – France and GB, but the French government starts collapsing in 1783
i. Lots of fights in the colonies over territory and maritime issues
ii. France had the largest army on land and Britain had the most effective navy, France tried to enlist Spain as allies, but both Spain and the Netherlands were in decline, essentially these were World Wars
iii. Example: War of the Spain Succession (1701-1713) – France loose, but not only in Europe but also in the colonies especially in Canada, Spain therefore also lose its slave trade in Africa, Britain end up getting all of the northern colonies
iv. War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739) – allowed Britain to send one ship a year through Panama
1. Treaty of Utrecht – Britain could trade with the Spanish in Latin America, but Spain then accused them of smuggling they cut off the captains ear violation of British sovereignty George II declares war on Spain War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – declared a draw…for 6 years
2. 7 Years War (1754-63) aka the French and Indian War – biggest war of the 18th Century, involves most of Europe and it was started by George Washington (Fort Duquesne – aka Pittsburg) British governed by the Whigs, send someone to Pittsburg to control the French, Washington loses, the British take it as an insult and start a war The Whigs are replaced by the Tories, new Prime Minister William Pitt he decides to pursue war on North America defeat Frances Navy on high seas, could no longer attack Britain and were gone a competition --Frances Trade is 1/16th of what it was before, sugar trade gone, control over French ports in India taken over by the British, Britain seizes Cuba and Philippines, war ends in 1763
a. Terms of the Treaty of Paris:
i. France loses all its North American Colonies and everything east of the Mississippi, all go to Britain
ii. France give Spain the Louisiana Territory in compensation for being an ally
iii. France has to accept Britain’s domination in India
iv. Spain is Forced to give Florida to Britain
b. Britain managed to screw the advantage up American Revolution (1775-1783) – they strip France of all its American colonies in the first treaty of Paris, in the second treaty of Paris Britain lose a lot of their colonies after the American Revolution (French helped America in the Revolution
k. Colonial Latin America – Spain and Portugal
i. In the 1700’s Spain are still a large part of the Latin American Economy
1. All the gold is gone, but there still is sugar (Silver deposits in Mexico and Peru) - by the end of the 1700’s they are supplying half the worlds silver
2. Spain is able to recover under Philipp VI and their navy ends up being third after France and Britain
3. The problem with Spain and Spanish Colonies was that there were three levels of society in the New World –
a. Creole – Spanish born in America tried to keep up the Spanish ways of life in the colonies, were the aristocracy (20% on the population)
b. Mestizos – Children born to Spanish fathers and Indian Mothers (30% of Spanish America)
c. Amerindians – native people – hardest labor, Latin American Serfs (40-50%)
d. Some black slaves on the sugar plantations
ii. Portuguese had slaves in brazil for sugar farming (50% of Brazilian population were of African descent)
IV. Life in the 18th Century
a. Marriage 1750 (date because that was the start of the first Industrialization)
i. Nuclear Families – Parents begin to move back in with their children because they were the only people they could depend on (Nuclear = two generations three-generation-household = when grandparents move back in primarily in lower classes)
ii. Before industrialization people tended to marry LATER because children were needed to help and couples couldn’t marry until they could support themselves (often not until parents died), girls needed a dowry, something to bring into the marriage
iii. People often had to ask the local land owner for permission to marry (especially in Prussia and the Germanic lands) if they make them wait until they’re older before they start having children then that controls/limits how many they can have
iv. Most couples had up to six children if they lived to 45 (middle/lower class) child mortality was HIGH (20%, 1 of every 5) in good areas. In poor areas it was 1/3. Even if you survived childhood, your chances of reaching adulthood and reproducing were only about 50%
b. Post- 1750 proto-industrialization
i. Cottage industry
ii. It doesn’t take them as long to become independent so they can marry younger
1. More children
2. Urbanization – people don’t have to worry so much, no more restrictions and checks by the neighbors, not such an intimate atmosphere
3. No longer need to constantly evaluate economic situations so more marrying for love, permission not so needed
4. Increase in bastards
5. Chastity, depending on your class, takes a beating, bit of a social breakdown
6. Lack of illegitimate births in the lower classes because they could now get married
iii. Working in the city wasn’t much better, they were very poor, women were discriminated against
1. Attitude towards children changed
2. Developed more mothering instincts
3. Poor mother breastfed their children for much longer
a. Upper class tend to move away from breastfeeding their own children, instead they hire wet nurses
iv. Infanticide – this was condemned but not all that uncommon especially among the poor
1. Orphanages were created – “foundling hospitals” – the first ones in Paris by 1770 1/3 of the babies in Paris were left on church steps, 1/3 of those were left by married couples who couldn’t afford it, 50-90% of the babies at the hospitals died
c. Child Rearing - changes especially in the lower class
i. Used to be – breaking the child’s will, never got attached because mortality rates were very high
ii. Later- morality rates dropped so they began to establish relationships with their children, children began to leave the home to take on apprenticeships, women had to go into domestic jobs - > often they were abused by the masters, got pregnant, ended up on streets, turned to thievery
d. Education – the idea of mass education begins to take root
i. Aristocracy had a head start
ii. Now in the 1700-1800’s there are special schools “little schools” =elementary education, and that was as far as they got
iii. Everyone got enough education to be able to read the bible, Prussia set an example (1717 compulsory education)
iv. Scotland – 1600 – 1 in 6 could read. In 1800 90%
e. Life expectancy explodes in the 1700’s goes from 25 to 35
i. Better nutrition – potatoes, the upper classes didn’t see a huge gain compared to the lower classes – they eat mainly meat, very few vegetables
ii. Better sanitation – small pox eradicated Edward Jenner (discovered that if you get cow pox you don’t get small pox), lack of plague
iii. Better clothes
iv. Improvements in housing - improvements in ventilation, creation of the first mental hospital
f. Religious reforms
i. Pietism – put the emotion back into religion, wanted to see enthusiasm in prayer and preaching – wanted to have more participation, bibles reading and study and channeling these ideas into their everyday lives (Germany)
ii. John Wesley – (England 1703-1791) – Methodist – influenced by Pietism – he was concerned that people were too complacent - most enlightenment people were deists, he didn’t like this. He takes his message to the common people, to the fields, to large numbers of people, also rejects the Calvinists (Predestination) as well as the deist if you wanted it and worked for it you could save your soul
Sunday, 15 November 2009
Scientific Revolution/The Enlightenment
Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment (late 1600’s – 1700’s)
1700’s – Age of Enlightenment/Reason
I. Scientific Revolution
a. Medieval view – the world revolves around the Church
b. Causes
i. Philosophy - “any kinds of thoughts”, different from theologians, branches include mathematics, astronomy, and physics - “natural philosophy”, study of the way nature works
ii. Renaissance – they rediscover ancient mathematics – more efficient mathematical system = calculations that allow them to track things, planet etc., also patronage was very important. AKA The Age of Discovery, Columbus, colonization, navigational skills for which they need math [telescopes, barometer, thermometer, clocks, microscopes, etc.] colleges and navy/merchants work together to help foster trade etc.
iii. The Scientific Method – Francis Bacon, formalized principles of Empirical Experimental Research, Rene Descartes - French mathematician and Philosopher, looked at the Principles of Deductive Reasoning
c. Copernicus – (1473-1543) – didn’t want to challenge the church The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres stated that the earth revolved around the sun, the sun being the centre of the universe, and the stars didn’t move, they only appeared to move because the earth does humans are now insignificant
i. Both Marin Luther and Calvin condemned Copernicus as well as the Catholic Church
ii. In 1616 the Catholic church prosecuted anyone who believed in Copernicus
d. Brache (1546-1601) – Europe’s leading astronomer in the 1600’s, built the best observatory in Europe and later proved the basis for Copernicus’ theory
e. Kepler(1571-1630) – student of Brache, first non religious astronomer, first to mathematically prove the theory
i. He comes up with the three laws of planetary motion
1. Planted move elliptically
2. The motion is not unitary in speed
3. The length of time it takes the planet to revolve around the sun depends on how close it is to the sun
f. Galileo (1564-1642) – got in the most trouble, developed the laws of motion, acceleration experiment, gravity, objects will fall at the same rate independent of their weight, objects in motion will remain in motion until it is stopped. He validated Copernicus’ view by using a telescope. Demonstrates that the moon and other celestial bodies are not perfectly round. His views are largely supported in northern Europe where there are lots of protestants, but the Catholics had already condemned him a heretic
i. 1632 – Dialog concerning the two chief world systems (Ptolemaic and Copernicus) – they forced him to issue a public retraction and for the last 10 years of his life he spent under house arrest
g. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) – empiricism (the inductive method) – one of two major systems of reasoning, use it for scientific experimentation
i. Observation, hypothesis, test
ii. “renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things”
iii. Bacon + Descartes = scientific method
h. Descartes (1596-1650) – cugito ergo sum
i. Deductive Reasoning – gives us the greatest literary misnaming of all time “It’s deductive, Watson”, no its inductive
ii. Algebra and geometry
iii. Cartesian Dualism – refers to all material is divided in to either physical or spiritual material. (there is the spiritual and the STUFF)
1. Spiritual can only be looked at using deductive reasons and physical and only use inductive
2. Inductive + deductive = scientific method
i. Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – Universal Gravitation
i. Mathematical Principles of Philosophy (1687) – becomes the foundation for the Enlightenment
ii. Deism - watchmaker theory
j. Physiology – study of the human body, four humors
i. Vesalius
ii. William Harvey (1628) – On the Movement of the heart and blood – the circulatory system
iii. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)– perfected the microscope, first to see cells, writes
about cells
iv. Royal Societies – of science
***All this leads to the Enlightenment. But Science is not yet highly Secular ***
II. The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
a. Reason can explain all aspects of life
i. Reason was a reflection of God’s ability to reason
ii. “God helps those who help themselves”
iii. The people who believed in reason were also religious they believed that God had made the world and was leaving it to tick
b. Deism – The belief that God was the Deistic Creator – The Watchmaker
i. The universe isn’t governed by God, but by a natural law that God created
c. Spinoza – a philosopher God = Nature
d. Many people now put their thoughts into government and society
i. Treatise – scholarly papers
ii. John Locke (1632-1704)
1. 1690 – Two Treatises of Civil Government
a. His justification for the Glorious Revolution in England
2. He believed that in a state of nature people were good, but were corrupted by society and government
a. Government’s job is to protect the people, given the right to by the people to rule them (life, liberty, and property)
b. “Consent of the Governed”
i. If the government doesn’t protect them, they have the right to change the government
3. Essay Concerning Human Understanding
a. Refute Descartes
4. Believed in Tabula Rasa
e. The more education the more progress
f. Toleration – people needed to be tolerant of other ideas
i. Allow all ideas and the best will rise to the top people needed as much information as possible “Intellectual Survival of the Fittest”
g. Fontenelle (1657-1757) – wrote amazing treatise, skeptical of absolute knowledge, also organized religion
h. Bayle (1647-1706) – the Critical and Historical Dictionary – advocates complete and total toleration of ALL ideas he is also skeptical of absolute truth and organizes religion
i. Philosophes – group of enlightened philosophers in France who helped popularize the Enlightenment
i. They were the intellectual elite, wrote treatises, etc.
ii. Most Famous = Voltaire (1694-1778)
1. Strong deist, challenged the catholic views, believed in human reason
2. Also called for social change – his ideas helped lay the foundations for the French revolution
3. Believed in religious tolerance – said they should crush religious intolerance
4. Organized religion had moved away from the message of Jesus and become corrupt
5. Didn’t Advocate Democracy, but Enlightened Despotism
6. Influenced a number of rulers who saw themselves as being Enlightened Despots – Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Napoleon…
7. He believed in equality before the law, but not of the classes, didn’t believe in bigotry
j. Montesquieu (1689-1755) – member of the French nobility, but hated the absolutism of Louis XIV
i. In 1746 – The Spirit of the Laws - he comes up with the idea of Checks and balances in Government – Executive, Judicial, Legislative – should be equal in power and check each other
ii. Liked the idea of the British Parliament System
iii. Supported 13 Parlements in France – 13 state supreme courts manned by nobles to check the power of the monarchs
k. Rousseau (1712-1778)– The Social Contract – consensus of a majority should rule a nation
i. General Will of the People – an Absolute Monarchs can abuse this idea
ii. But Rousseau doesn’t say how you find out what the majority rule it…no elections?
iii. Man in a simpler state of nature was good – “The noble savage” – what corrupts man is the materialism of civilization…
l. Diderot (1713-1784) – The Encyclopedia (1765) – a compilation of the political and social critiques of the Philosophes - wanted to teach people to think critically and objectively
m. Beccuria (1764) – On Crimes and Punishment French, wanted the punishment the be relative to the crime, thought the death penalty should only be used in the for the most extreme threats against the state, was also opposed to the use of torture to extract confession
i. Frederick the Great banned torture, Catherine the Great restricted torture etc.
III. Economy
i. Quesnay (1694-1774) – physiocrat – advocated Laissez Faire in agriculture
1. Let people who own land keep and it and make profit on the produce
ii. Adam Smith (1727-1799) - The Wealth of Nations (1776)
1. Expansion and refinement of the arguments the physiocrats were using in France
a. The Government should be neutral in its dealing with business, the invisible hand of business should be left to rule the natural laws of supply and demand will prevail
2. Believed the Government should not be involved in the Economy - any participation would mess up the laws of supply and demand
a. The government by definition CANNOT not be involved
IV. Women
i. Salons
ii. Madame de Geoffeu – major salon organizer and patron of Diderot so he could write his encyclopedia
iii. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) - leading advocate of women’s education and political involvement
V. Later Enlightenment
i. Toleration
ii. Reason
iii. Skepticism
b. D’Holbach - System of Nature Humans are machines completely controlled by outside forces, he is a total atheist
c. Hume (1711-1776) - Argues against natural law and faith
i. We are limited by our human senses, we can’t hear what a dog can hear, so Enlightenment?!
d. Condorcet – Progress of the Human Mind – 10 stages of human progress
e. Rousseau - doesn’t want us all to becomes Spok – like
f. Kant – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment, but he starts compartmentalizing things
i. Separates science and morality…erm…
ii. BED ROCK OF AMERICAN FUNDAMENTALISTS…now evolution doesn’t work
VI. Classical Liberalism ≠ Democracy
a. Political out through of the Enlightenment
b. Individual liberty from government control
c. Equality under the law
d. Adam Smith
VII. Religious backlash against the Enlightenment
a. German Pietism – could need spiritual conversion and religious experience
b. Methodism – John Wesley (1703-1791) – “Born Again”
c. Jansenism – catholic sect, directly opposed to an uninvolved god, didn’t life the deists, earlier had been persecuted by Louis XIV for their Calvinist ideals, also believed in predestination
d. Effects:
i. Emergence of a secular world view, primarily of the universe
ii. Enlightened despotism
iii. Educational reform
iv. Laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith)
v. American and French Revolution
VIII. Enlightened Despots
a. Religious Toleration
b. Streamlines legal codes
c. Reduction of Torture
d. Increased access to Education
e. Frederick the Great (r. 1740-86)
i. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
ii. Pragmatic Sanction – the Great powers of Europe said that Charles’ VII daughter would inherit the entire Hapsburg Empire
1. Frederick wasnee happy – Annexed Silesia from Austria go to war, Frederick is good at the War game… Prussia becomes one of the important European power because little Prussia doubles its population by gaining this piece of land
f. Seven Years War – the French Indian War in America gets the European powers included in a war
i. Maria – Theresa of Austria wants Silesia allies -> France and Russia
1. Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
2. Prussia outnumbered 15:1, but then Russia pull out… HAH! Peter III withdrew, giving Prussia a chance to recover… Catherine the Great (German-Prussian)assassinated Peter for pulling out…then ruled Russia for 30 years
3. 1763- Britain and Russia settle their differences
4. Treaty of Paris in 1763 – France looses all of its American colonies to GB and Prussia gets to keep Silesia
ii. Frederick the Great then tries to become an enlightened despot – first servant of the state…but he is an absolute ruler
a. Allows religious freedom, but limited for the Jews
b. Promotes education, especially at university level
c. Makes the judicial system more efficient
d. Frees the serfs on crown lands all the serfs on noble lands are still serfs
e. Will order and end to physical punishment of serfs by nobles, but it was hard to enforce
f. Improved t Civil Service by introducing civil service exams
g. Reduced censorship
h. Abolished capital punishment, except in the army
i. Problem was the Uncas – they were the backbone of the army
i. They couldn’t marry commoners
ii. Couldn’t sell their land to non nobles problems for the middle class – couldn’t rise
iii. Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
1. Considered to be one of the greatest rulers in European history
2. Was in some way involved in the assassination plot, she wasn’t technically in line because Peter the Great had abolished hereditary assumption of the throne
3. Pugachev Rebellion of 1773 – huge serf uprising he and his band of Cossacks kill many land owners scared Catherine because she needed the nobility gives the nobles absolute control over the serfs…
4. 1785- Catherine abolishes taxes on the nobles… for ever !
5. Introduced local government councils… of nobles and other things
6. Problems – the nobles and the state and the crown benefited the most, and the serfs were even worse off
7. Gains land In Poland, Ottoman empire, and Caucuses and Crimea
iv. *Maria Teresa (r.1740-1780) - wasn’t exactly enlightened
1. Eventually becomes ruler because it was given her
2. Conservative and cautious
3. War of the Austrian Succession
4. Didn’t go as far as Religious toleration, didn’t believe in certain enlightenment values, but she wound up doing some of them
5. The results of her actions were enlightened, but she didn’t think enlightened
6. Her son however, will be an enlightened despot Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
7. He is seen as being the greatest of the enlightened despots
8. Frees the serfs in 1781, which the serfs opposed because now instead of paying the lords in time, they had to pay the state in cash, when he dies and his brother Leopold took over, they rescinded it.
9. Freedom and religious toleration for Jews
10. Abolished the death penalty and torture
11. Expands state schools
12. Establishes hospitals, poor house, insane asylums, orphanages
13. Tries to make everyone evil under the law
14. Austria get weak under his control and his brother has to rescind many of his reforms
1700’s – Age of Enlightenment/Reason
I. Scientific Revolution
a. Medieval view – the world revolves around the Church
b. Causes
i. Philosophy - “any kinds of thoughts”, different from theologians, branches include mathematics, astronomy, and physics - “natural philosophy”, study of the way nature works
ii. Renaissance – they rediscover ancient mathematics – more efficient mathematical system = calculations that allow them to track things, planet etc., also patronage was very important. AKA The Age of Discovery, Columbus, colonization, navigational skills for which they need math [telescopes, barometer, thermometer, clocks, microscopes, etc.] colleges and navy/merchants work together to help foster trade etc.
iii. The Scientific Method – Francis Bacon, formalized principles of Empirical Experimental Research, Rene Descartes - French mathematician and Philosopher, looked at the Principles of Deductive Reasoning
c. Copernicus – (1473-1543) – didn’t want to challenge the church The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres stated that the earth revolved around the sun, the sun being the centre of the universe, and the stars didn’t move, they only appeared to move because the earth does humans are now insignificant
i. Both Marin Luther and Calvin condemned Copernicus as well as the Catholic Church
ii. In 1616 the Catholic church prosecuted anyone who believed in Copernicus
d. Brache (1546-1601) – Europe’s leading astronomer in the 1600’s, built the best observatory in Europe and later proved the basis for Copernicus’ theory
e. Kepler(1571-1630) – student of Brache, first non religious astronomer, first to mathematically prove the theory
i. He comes up with the three laws of planetary motion
1. Planted move elliptically
2. The motion is not unitary in speed
3. The length of time it takes the planet to revolve around the sun depends on how close it is to the sun
f. Galileo (1564-1642) – got in the most trouble, developed the laws of motion, acceleration experiment, gravity, objects will fall at the same rate independent of their weight, objects in motion will remain in motion until it is stopped. He validated Copernicus’ view by using a telescope. Demonstrates that the moon and other celestial bodies are not perfectly round. His views are largely supported in northern Europe where there are lots of protestants, but the Catholics had already condemned him a heretic
i. 1632 – Dialog concerning the two chief world systems (Ptolemaic and Copernicus) – they forced him to issue a public retraction and for the last 10 years of his life he spent under house arrest
g. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) – empiricism (the inductive method) – one of two major systems of reasoning, use it for scientific experimentation
i. Observation, hypothesis, test
ii. “renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things”
iii. Bacon + Descartes = scientific method
h. Descartes (1596-1650) – cugito ergo sum
i. Deductive Reasoning – gives us the greatest literary misnaming of all time “It’s deductive, Watson”, no its inductive
ii. Algebra and geometry
iii. Cartesian Dualism – refers to all material is divided in to either physical or spiritual material. (there is the spiritual and the STUFF)
1. Spiritual can only be looked at using deductive reasons and physical and only use inductive
2. Inductive + deductive = scientific method
i. Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – Universal Gravitation
i. Mathematical Principles of Philosophy (1687) – becomes the foundation for the Enlightenment
ii. Deism - watchmaker theory
j. Physiology – study of the human body, four humors
i. Vesalius
ii. William Harvey (1628) – On the Movement of the heart and blood – the circulatory system
iii. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)– perfected the microscope, first to see cells, writes
about cells
iv. Royal Societies – of science
***All this leads to the Enlightenment. But Science is not yet highly Secular ***
II. The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
a. Reason can explain all aspects of life
i. Reason was a reflection of God’s ability to reason
ii. “God helps those who help themselves”
iii. The people who believed in reason were also religious they believed that God had made the world and was leaving it to tick
b. Deism – The belief that God was the Deistic Creator – The Watchmaker
i. The universe isn’t governed by God, but by a natural law that God created
c. Spinoza – a philosopher God = Nature
d. Many people now put their thoughts into government and society
i. Treatise – scholarly papers
ii. John Locke (1632-1704)
1. 1690 – Two Treatises of Civil Government
a. His justification for the Glorious Revolution in England
2. He believed that in a state of nature people were good, but were corrupted by society and government
a. Government’s job is to protect the people, given the right to by the people to rule them (life, liberty, and property)
b. “Consent of the Governed”
i. If the government doesn’t protect them, they have the right to change the government
3. Essay Concerning Human Understanding
a. Refute Descartes
4. Believed in Tabula Rasa
e. The more education the more progress
f. Toleration – people needed to be tolerant of other ideas
i. Allow all ideas and the best will rise to the top people needed as much information as possible “Intellectual Survival of the Fittest”
g. Fontenelle (1657-1757) – wrote amazing treatise, skeptical of absolute knowledge, also organized religion
h. Bayle (1647-1706) – the Critical and Historical Dictionary – advocates complete and total toleration of ALL ideas he is also skeptical of absolute truth and organizes religion
i. Philosophes – group of enlightened philosophers in France who helped popularize the Enlightenment
i. They were the intellectual elite, wrote treatises, etc.
ii. Most Famous = Voltaire (1694-1778)
1. Strong deist, challenged the catholic views, believed in human reason
2. Also called for social change – his ideas helped lay the foundations for the French revolution
3. Believed in religious tolerance – said they should crush religious intolerance
4. Organized religion had moved away from the message of Jesus and become corrupt
5. Didn’t Advocate Democracy, but Enlightened Despotism
6. Influenced a number of rulers who saw themselves as being Enlightened Despots – Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Napoleon…
7. He believed in equality before the law, but not of the classes, didn’t believe in bigotry
j. Montesquieu (1689-1755) – member of the French nobility, but hated the absolutism of Louis XIV
i. In 1746 – The Spirit of the Laws - he comes up with the idea of Checks and balances in Government – Executive, Judicial, Legislative – should be equal in power and check each other
ii. Liked the idea of the British Parliament System
iii. Supported 13 Parlements in France – 13 state supreme courts manned by nobles to check the power of the monarchs
k. Rousseau (1712-1778)– The Social Contract – consensus of a majority should rule a nation
i. General Will of the People – an Absolute Monarchs can abuse this idea
ii. But Rousseau doesn’t say how you find out what the majority rule it…no elections?
iii. Man in a simpler state of nature was good – “The noble savage” – what corrupts man is the materialism of civilization…
l. Diderot (1713-1784) – The Encyclopedia (1765) – a compilation of the political and social critiques of the Philosophes - wanted to teach people to think critically and objectively
m. Beccuria (1764) – On Crimes and Punishment French, wanted the punishment the be relative to the crime, thought the death penalty should only be used in the for the most extreme threats against the state, was also opposed to the use of torture to extract confession
i. Frederick the Great banned torture, Catherine the Great restricted torture etc.
III. Economy
i. Quesnay (1694-1774) – physiocrat – advocated Laissez Faire in agriculture
1. Let people who own land keep and it and make profit on the produce
ii. Adam Smith (1727-1799) - The Wealth of Nations (1776)
1. Expansion and refinement of the arguments the physiocrats were using in France
a. The Government should be neutral in its dealing with business, the invisible hand of business should be left to rule the natural laws of supply and demand will prevail
2. Believed the Government should not be involved in the Economy - any participation would mess up the laws of supply and demand
a. The government by definition CANNOT not be involved
IV. Women
i. Salons
ii. Madame de Geoffeu – major salon organizer and patron of Diderot so he could write his encyclopedia
iii. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) - leading advocate of women’s education and political involvement
V. Later Enlightenment
i. Toleration
ii. Reason
iii. Skepticism
b. D’Holbach - System of Nature Humans are machines completely controlled by outside forces, he is a total atheist
c. Hume (1711-1776) - Argues against natural law and faith
i. We are limited by our human senses, we can’t hear what a dog can hear, so Enlightenment?!
d. Condorcet – Progress of the Human Mind – 10 stages of human progress
e. Rousseau - doesn’t want us all to becomes Spok – like
f. Kant – greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment, but he starts compartmentalizing things
i. Separates science and morality…erm…
ii. BED ROCK OF AMERICAN FUNDAMENTALISTS…now evolution doesn’t work
VI. Classical Liberalism ≠ Democracy
a. Political out through of the Enlightenment
b. Individual liberty from government control
c. Equality under the law
d. Adam Smith
VII. Religious backlash against the Enlightenment
a. German Pietism – could need spiritual conversion and religious experience
b. Methodism – John Wesley (1703-1791) – “Born Again”
c. Jansenism – catholic sect, directly opposed to an uninvolved god, didn’t life the deists, earlier had been persecuted by Louis XIV for their Calvinist ideals, also believed in predestination
d. Effects:
i. Emergence of a secular world view, primarily of the universe
ii. Enlightened despotism
iii. Educational reform
iv. Laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith)
v. American and French Revolution
VIII. Enlightened Despots
a. Religious Toleration
b. Streamlines legal codes
c. Reduction of Torture
d. Increased access to Education
e. Frederick the Great (r. 1740-86)
i. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
ii. Pragmatic Sanction – the Great powers of Europe said that Charles’ VII daughter would inherit the entire Hapsburg Empire
1. Frederick wasnee happy – Annexed Silesia from Austria go to war, Frederick is good at the War game… Prussia becomes one of the important European power because little Prussia doubles its population by gaining this piece of land
f. Seven Years War – the French Indian War in America gets the European powers included in a war
i. Maria – Theresa of Austria wants Silesia allies -> France and Russia
1. Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
2. Prussia outnumbered 15:1, but then Russia pull out… HAH! Peter III withdrew, giving Prussia a chance to recover… Catherine the Great (German-Prussian)assassinated Peter for pulling out…then ruled Russia for 30 years
3. 1763- Britain and Russia settle their differences
4. Treaty of Paris in 1763 – France looses all of its American colonies to GB and Prussia gets to keep Silesia
ii. Frederick the Great then tries to become an enlightened despot – first servant of the state…but he is an absolute ruler
a. Allows religious freedom, but limited for the Jews
b. Promotes education, especially at university level
c. Makes the judicial system more efficient
d. Frees the serfs on crown lands all the serfs on noble lands are still serfs
e. Will order and end to physical punishment of serfs by nobles, but it was hard to enforce
f. Improved t Civil Service by introducing civil service exams
g. Reduced censorship
h. Abolished capital punishment, except in the army
i. Problem was the Uncas – they were the backbone of the army
i. They couldn’t marry commoners
ii. Couldn’t sell their land to non nobles problems for the middle class – couldn’t rise
iii. Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
1. Considered to be one of the greatest rulers in European history
2. Was in some way involved in the assassination plot, she wasn’t technically in line because Peter the Great had abolished hereditary assumption of the throne
3. Pugachev Rebellion of 1773 – huge serf uprising he and his band of Cossacks kill many land owners scared Catherine because she needed the nobility gives the nobles absolute control over the serfs…
4. 1785- Catherine abolishes taxes on the nobles… for ever !
5. Introduced local government councils… of nobles and other things
6. Problems – the nobles and the state and the crown benefited the most, and the serfs were even worse off
7. Gains land In Poland, Ottoman empire, and Caucuses and Crimea
iv. *Maria Teresa (r.1740-1780) - wasn’t exactly enlightened
1. Eventually becomes ruler because it was given her
2. Conservative and cautious
3. War of the Austrian Succession
4. Didn’t go as far as Religious toleration, didn’t believe in certain enlightenment values, but she wound up doing some of them
5. The results of her actions were enlightened, but she didn’t think enlightened
6. Her son however, will be an enlightened despot Joseph II (r. 1780-1790)
7. He is seen as being the greatest of the enlightened despots
8. Frees the serfs in 1781, which the serfs opposed because now instead of paying the lords in time, they had to pay the state in cash, when he dies and his brother Leopold took over, they rescinded it.
9. Freedom and religious toleration for Jews
10. Abolished the death penalty and torture
11. Expands state schools
12. Establishes hospitals, poor house, insane asylums, orphanages
13. Tries to make everyone evil under the law
14. Austria get weak under his control and his brother has to rescind many of his reforms
Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe (IMCOMPLETE)
Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
- Started off in a bad way, he wasn’t of age when he became ruler, so his sister, Sophia was ruling as his regent he had her banished to a monastery and his mother takes over as his regent and he begins ruling at age 22
- He was very tall and very strong [he could supposedly bend an iron horseshoe with his bare hands
- He also had to deal with internal strife – Strelski – the Moscow Guard – he put down their revolt in 1698 and thereby established himself as the Absolute Monarch
- Peter was very interested in establishing an army – required enlistment
- He spent 25% of the national budget on the army
- His royal army alone had 200,000 men, he also had a special forces unit of foreigners and Cossacks (another 100,000)
- He also established military academies to train officers, some of them specialized in artillery – he was interested in the mechanics of war
- Young male nobles were also required to enlist for 5 years
- Also built up a large navy in the Baltic coast
- Great Northern War (1700-1721)
o Principle allies – Poland, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden
o Battle of Poltava (1709)– Russia defeats the Swedish forces, it is decisive, but the war dragged on
o Peace treaty at Nystad – Russia gained Latvia and Estonia
It gained ports on the Baltic – “Windows to the West”
- Another project – Westernization, Peter was credited with bringing western aspects to Russia
o It is really hard to classify whether Russia is Europe or Asia
- Peter toured Europe incognito, sometimes working along the way, looking up industries and new techniques, brought in westerners to create industries/factories in Russia
o But that created serfdom of the factories – serfs were used as slaves in factories
o Many were state regulated monopolies - no competition/inferior products, no open market, only serfs worked there, No Educated Labor
- Government becomes more efficient under Peter the Great because he rules by decree
o Theoretically the Tsar owned all land, everyone existed to SERVE THE STATE
o No representative political bodies, no parliament
o All land owners owed life time service to the state, if it was required
o The nobility got to own land and serfs in return – they could essentially do what they pleased “if you were a serf, life sucked”
- “Table of Ranks” – it was possible to rise in the bureaucracy through ability
o It set educational standards for the positions, most civil service agents came from the nobility
- He had an extensive Secret Police that were absolutely ruthless and crushed all opposition to the state and taxation
o He had a head tax on every male [annual]
o Also taxed trade/sales/rents/beards
- Used a lot of money for St. Petersburg – wanted create a city similar to Amsterdam although he did create his own version of Versailles
o It was the largest northern City at the time of his death
o He made the serfs work on it and made the nobility build houses there according to his plans
o He also forced merchants and artisan to live there in their own sections
- Political Control – he turned the Orthodox Church into a political structure (1700)
- Peter modernizes Russia, but still the underlying harsh conditions
o He starts to explain his reasoning, but still ruled by decree
Peter the Great (1682-1725)
- Started off in a bad way, he wasn’t of age when he became ruler, so his sister, Sophia was ruling as his regent he had her banished to a monastery and his mother takes over as his regent and he begins ruling at age 22
- He was very tall and very strong [he could supposedly bend an iron horseshoe with his bare hands
- He also had to deal with internal strife – Strelski – the Moscow Guard – he put down their revolt in 1698 and thereby established himself as the Absolute Monarch
- Peter was very interested in establishing an army – required enlistment
- He spent 25% of the national budget on the army
- His royal army alone had 200,000 men, he also had a special forces unit of foreigners and Cossacks (another 100,000)
- He also established military academies to train officers, some of them specialized in artillery – he was interested in the mechanics of war
- Young male nobles were also required to enlist for 5 years
- Also built up a large navy in the Baltic coast
- Great Northern War (1700-1721)
o Principle allies – Poland, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden
o Battle of Poltava (1709)– Russia defeats the Swedish forces, it is decisive, but the war dragged on
o Peace treaty at Nystad – Russia gained Latvia and Estonia
It gained ports on the Baltic – “Windows to the West”
- Another project – Westernization, Peter was credited with bringing western aspects to Russia
o It is really hard to classify whether Russia is Europe or Asia
- Peter toured Europe incognito, sometimes working along the way, looking up industries and new techniques, brought in westerners to create industries/factories in Russia
o But that created serfdom of the factories – serfs were used as slaves in factories
o Many were state regulated monopolies - no competition/inferior products, no open market, only serfs worked there, No Educated Labor
- Government becomes more efficient under Peter the Great because he rules by decree
o Theoretically the Tsar owned all land, everyone existed to SERVE THE STATE
o No representative political bodies, no parliament
o All land owners owed life time service to the state, if it was required
o The nobility got to own land and serfs in return – they could essentially do what they pleased “if you were a serf, life sucked”
- “Table of Ranks” – it was possible to rise in the bureaucracy through ability
o It set educational standards for the positions, most civil service agents came from the nobility
- He had an extensive Secret Police that were absolutely ruthless and crushed all opposition to the state and taxation
o He had a head tax on every male [annual]
o Also taxed trade/sales/rents/beards
- Used a lot of money for St. Petersburg – wanted create a city similar to Amsterdam although he did create his own version of Versailles
o It was the largest northern City at the time of his death
o He made the serfs work on it and made the nobility build houses there according to his plans
o He also forced merchants and artisan to live there in their own sections
- Political Control – he turned the Orthodox Church into a political structure (1700)
- Peter modernizes Russia, but still the underlying harsh conditions
o He starts to explain his reasoning, but still ruled by decree
Constitutionalsim in Western Europe
Constitutionalism in Western Europe (government power limited by law, opposite of Absolutism ) 1600-1725
I. England
a. Elizabeth dies in 1603, end of the Tudor Dynasty
b. There is a degree of social mobility (from rags to riches) – large middle class
c. Improvement in agricultural techniques = enough food
d. Middle class wants more power power struggle between middle and upper middle class
e. Upper Middle Class Gentry = bought titles, sold their land
f. Gentry dominated the House of Commons, are willing to be taxed in return for power and some say in how the money is spent.
g. Nobility resent the increased power of the Gentry
h. Religion – the Puritans, came to outnumber Anglicans by the early 1600’s
i. Puritan = wanted to purify the Anglican of Catholic relics
ii. Puritan Work Ethic idea that God wants you to work hard, not indulge in lots of things, moderation in everything
i. Problems for England start when Elizabeth I dies
i. James VI of Scotland was the nearest relative, so he became James I of England (Stuart Dynasty) (then Charles I [he is beheaded], then Charles II[flees to France, guest of Louis XIV] , then James II [disposed of during the Glorious Revolution]
ii. The Stuarts will try to turn back the clock and move back towards absolutism, but will be restrained by parliament and later by the people, there will be a time when there is no King
iii. Can the King rule without the consent of Parliament, or go against Parliament? lead to civil war
iv. Who controls Church Practice [Puritans], Kings and Archbishops, or is there more freedom of consent, get rid of all the incense and catholic things?
II. James I
a. Assumes the throne when Elizabeth dies in 1603, rules until 1625
b. He believes in Divine Right, both of the Church and the Country, but didn’t like the Puritans because he wanted to keep the Bishops (considers trying to get rid of the King as BOTH heresy AND treason
c. HE dissolves Parliament TWICE when it doesn’t give him what he wants.
i. They won’t raise taxes for a war (they don’t mind taxes, but they want control of where the money goes and they wanted more free speech), he told them they couldn’t disobey him because he ruling by divine right.
ii. He was constrained in part by Elizabeth because she left a sizable dept, so he needed money from Parliament
d. He flaunted his wealth, having large banquets but still asking for money
e. He dies in 1625 and his son takes over
III. Charles I (technically rules until 1649, but is in captivity for some of that, and then loses his head)
a. Divine Right of Kings (Country and the Church)
b. He has even more problems with finance than his father, wars are very costly, he refuses to call parliament
c. To save money they quarter soldiers in their homes very unpopular
d. Some English nobles were arrested for refusing to lend money to the crown
e. By 1628, both Houses are firmly against the King
f. Petition of Right (1628) – parliament tried to get the King to reinforce basic rights in exchange for the higher taxes
i. Only Parliament has the right to levy taxes
ii. No one imprisoned or detained without due process of Law
iii. Habeas Corpus “show me the body”
iv. No forces quartering of soldiers
v. Martial law only during Law
g. There will be no parliament from 1629-1640
i. During this time he used forces taxation
ii. One of the most unpopular taxes was “Ship tax” – every county in England had to pay to outfit ships for the crown
h. Religious issues get him into real trouble
i. Puritans are prosecuted, they flee to USA
i. “Short Parliament” (1640) – Charles gets himself into an internal war against the Scots because he tries to impose the Anglican book of prayer on them
i. He’s therefore desperate for money
ii. Has to fight the Scottish military, so he asks for raised taxes
1. But he has to do all the stuff (petition of rights and reform of the church)
2. He dissolves Parliament
iii. They invade northern England
iv. 1640 – calls parliament back “Long Parliament” (1640-1648), this time they get their concessions
1. Parliament can’t be dissolved unless they agree to it
2. Have to meet at least every three years
3. Ship tax was abolished
4. Leaders of the Puritan persecution (including archbishop Laud) were to be tried in court
5. Abolished the Star Chamber
6. Common Law Court were supreme over royal courts
IV. Causes of the English civil war
a. Gentry take over the House of Commons (many of them are Puritans) Parliament ends up being dominated by Puritans
b. Charles tries to arrest several members of Parliament because they weren’t giving him what he wanted (they won’t fund his army)
c. 1642 – he declares war on his Puritan opponents in Parliament [he can’t dissolve parliament]
i. Kings army = Cavaliers (people who support the crown [nobles, country gentry, and most of the clergy], they will joined by the Irish Catholics)
ii. Puritans – Round Heads [see WWI] – align themselves with the Scottish army, business men supported this side, were supported by the navy and merchant marine (Presbyterian and the Congregationalists)
d. Oliver Cromwell – New Model Army – lead them to victory in 1649 – against the cavaliers battle of Nasby
e. Parliament wanted to disband the Puritan Army in peace time, Cromwell says no. prevents the Scottish invasion of England
f. Pride’s Purge – Parliament is purged of all not Puritan members and all Presbyterians, knock parliament down to 1/5 of its previous size
g. Civil War is officially over when the behead Charles I in 1649 (1st European monarch ever to be executed by the people)
h. New Puritan Sects that evolve
i. The Levellers – radicals – social and political reforms, no body above anyone else
ii. Diggors – did not believe in private ownership of land, no parliament authority
iii. Quakers - believed everyone had their own inner light, so they rejected religious authority.
V. Interregnum (1649-1660)
a. Military government – Cromwell rules with an army of 44,000 men
b. Created the Commonwealth (1646-1653)
c. Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, now only a House of Common
d. Scots invade again because they weren’t happy with the kind of puritans who were ruling it
e. Protectorate (1643-1660), i.e. a Military dictatorship (he calls himself “Lord Protector”), laid down all kinds of new rules for the people, press censorship, theatres closed, sports forbidden, outlawed entertainment
f. Cromwell dissolves parliament, divides England into 12 districts, each ruled by a military general
g. Cromwell’s military victories:
i. 1649 – invades Ireland and puts down an uprising, creates the Act of Settlement, took the land from 2/3 of the Catholics gave it to protestant English settlers
ii. 1651-52 – conquers Scotland
h. Cromwell dies in 1658, but fortunately there is another Puritan waiting to take over for him, his son Richard.
i. He isn’t great, and the people are pissed off
ii. So, in 1660, they invite Charles II to come back The Restoration, the restoring of the English Throne, Parliament reconvenes, but there are restrictions on the King
i. Two Restoration Kings
i. Charles II – agrees to number of restrictions: the Kings power is not absolute, Parliament is stronger than it has ever been, there is religious tolerance (he was called the “Merry Monarch”)
ii. Because parliament now has the power, there will be power struggles in Parliament
iii. Tories (ex cavaliers, nobles – conservatives) and Whigs (more middle class, puritan, favored religious toleration, more liberal)
iv. The Tories tried to get power back in nobility in Parliament
1. Clarendon Code – sought to drive the Puritans out of both political and religious life, put restrictions on them
2. 1663 – Test Act proposed religious test in order to hold public office they had to take the sacrament from the Anglican Church (they couldn’t preach, hold office or everything)
I. England
a. Elizabeth dies in 1603, end of the Tudor Dynasty
b. There is a degree of social mobility (from rags to riches) – large middle class
c. Improvement in agricultural techniques = enough food
d. Middle class wants more power power struggle between middle and upper middle class
e. Upper Middle Class Gentry = bought titles, sold their land
f. Gentry dominated the House of Commons, are willing to be taxed in return for power and some say in how the money is spent.
g. Nobility resent the increased power of the Gentry
h. Religion – the Puritans, came to outnumber Anglicans by the early 1600’s
i. Puritan = wanted to purify the Anglican of Catholic relics
ii. Puritan Work Ethic idea that God wants you to work hard, not indulge in lots of things, moderation in everything
i. Problems for England start when Elizabeth I dies
i. James VI of Scotland was the nearest relative, so he became James I of England (Stuart Dynasty) (then Charles I [he is beheaded], then Charles II[flees to France, guest of Louis XIV] , then James II [disposed of during the Glorious Revolution]
ii. The Stuarts will try to turn back the clock and move back towards absolutism, but will be restrained by parliament and later by the people, there will be a time when there is no King
iii. Can the King rule without the consent of Parliament, or go against Parliament? lead to civil war
iv. Who controls Church Practice [Puritans], Kings and Archbishops, or is there more freedom of consent, get rid of all the incense and catholic things?
II. James I
a. Assumes the throne when Elizabeth dies in 1603, rules until 1625
b. He believes in Divine Right, both of the Church and the Country, but didn’t like the Puritans because he wanted to keep the Bishops (considers trying to get rid of the King as BOTH heresy AND treason
c. HE dissolves Parliament TWICE when it doesn’t give him what he wants.
i. They won’t raise taxes for a war (they don’t mind taxes, but they want control of where the money goes and they wanted more free speech), he told them they couldn’t disobey him because he ruling by divine right.
ii. He was constrained in part by Elizabeth because she left a sizable dept, so he needed money from Parliament
d. He flaunted his wealth, having large banquets but still asking for money
e. He dies in 1625 and his son takes over
III. Charles I (technically rules until 1649, but is in captivity for some of that, and then loses his head)
a. Divine Right of Kings (Country and the Church)
b. He has even more problems with finance than his father, wars are very costly, he refuses to call parliament
c. To save money they quarter soldiers in their homes very unpopular
d. Some English nobles were arrested for refusing to lend money to the crown
e. By 1628, both Houses are firmly against the King
f. Petition of Right (1628) – parliament tried to get the King to reinforce basic rights in exchange for the higher taxes
i. Only Parliament has the right to levy taxes
ii. No one imprisoned or detained without due process of Law
iii. Habeas Corpus “show me the body”
iv. No forces quartering of soldiers
v. Martial law only during Law
g. There will be no parliament from 1629-1640
i. During this time he used forces taxation
ii. One of the most unpopular taxes was “Ship tax” – every county in England had to pay to outfit ships for the crown
h. Religious issues get him into real trouble
i. Puritans are prosecuted, they flee to USA
i. “Short Parliament” (1640) – Charles gets himself into an internal war against the Scots because he tries to impose the Anglican book of prayer on them
i. He’s therefore desperate for money
ii. Has to fight the Scottish military, so he asks for raised taxes
1. But he has to do all the stuff (petition of rights and reform of the church)
2. He dissolves Parliament
iii. They invade northern England
iv. 1640 – calls parliament back “Long Parliament” (1640-1648), this time they get their concessions
1. Parliament can’t be dissolved unless they agree to it
2. Have to meet at least every three years
3. Ship tax was abolished
4. Leaders of the Puritan persecution (including archbishop Laud) were to be tried in court
5. Abolished the Star Chamber
6. Common Law Court were supreme over royal courts
IV. Causes of the English civil war
a. Gentry take over the House of Commons (many of them are Puritans) Parliament ends up being dominated by Puritans
b. Charles tries to arrest several members of Parliament because they weren’t giving him what he wanted (they won’t fund his army)
c. 1642 – he declares war on his Puritan opponents in Parliament [he can’t dissolve parliament]
i. Kings army = Cavaliers (people who support the crown [nobles, country gentry, and most of the clergy], they will joined by the Irish Catholics)
ii. Puritans – Round Heads [see WWI] – align themselves with the Scottish army, business men supported this side, were supported by the navy and merchant marine (Presbyterian and the Congregationalists)
d. Oliver Cromwell – New Model Army – lead them to victory in 1649 – against the cavaliers battle of Nasby
e. Parliament wanted to disband the Puritan Army in peace time, Cromwell says no. prevents the Scottish invasion of England
f. Pride’s Purge – Parliament is purged of all not Puritan members and all Presbyterians, knock parliament down to 1/5 of its previous size
g. Civil War is officially over when the behead Charles I in 1649 (1st European monarch ever to be executed by the people)
h. New Puritan Sects that evolve
i. The Levellers – radicals – social and political reforms, no body above anyone else
ii. Diggors – did not believe in private ownership of land, no parliament authority
iii. Quakers - believed everyone had their own inner light, so they rejected religious authority.
V. Interregnum (1649-1660)
a. Military government – Cromwell rules with an army of 44,000 men
b. Created the Commonwealth (1646-1653)
c. Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, now only a House of Common
d. Scots invade again because they weren’t happy with the kind of puritans who were ruling it
e. Protectorate (1643-1660), i.e. a Military dictatorship (he calls himself “Lord Protector”), laid down all kinds of new rules for the people, press censorship, theatres closed, sports forbidden, outlawed entertainment
f. Cromwell dissolves parliament, divides England into 12 districts, each ruled by a military general
g. Cromwell’s military victories:
i. 1649 – invades Ireland and puts down an uprising, creates the Act of Settlement, took the land from 2/3 of the Catholics gave it to protestant English settlers
ii. 1651-52 – conquers Scotland
h. Cromwell dies in 1658, but fortunately there is another Puritan waiting to take over for him, his son Richard.
i. He isn’t great, and the people are pissed off
ii. So, in 1660, they invite Charles II to come back The Restoration, the restoring of the English Throne, Parliament reconvenes, but there are restrictions on the King
i. Two Restoration Kings
i. Charles II – agrees to number of restrictions: the Kings power is not absolute, Parliament is stronger than it has ever been, there is religious tolerance (he was called the “Merry Monarch”)
ii. Because parliament now has the power, there will be power struggles in Parliament
iii. Tories (ex cavaliers, nobles – conservatives) and Whigs (more middle class, puritan, favored religious toleration, more liberal)
iv. The Tories tried to get power back in nobility in Parliament
1. Clarendon Code – sought to drive the Puritans out of both political and religious life, put restrictions on them
2. 1663 – Test Act proposed religious test in order to hold public office they had to take the sacrament from the Anglican Church (they couldn’t preach, hold office or everything)
Absolutism
Absolutism in Western Europe (1589-1715)
I. Characteristics
a. Monarchs claim to rule by Divine Right [as do their decedents]
i. Not appointed by anyone else. They are God’s representative on earth.
ii. They have the power to make laws, govern people, and control every aspect of their lives.
b. The King becomes a representative for the state/country.
i. Good, if you have a good King, not if not
ii. “Cult of Personality” – strong personality = the embodiment of the state
c. The monarch is not always subjected to a national assembly.
i. Louis XIV NEVER called the assembly [three states]
d. An absolute ruler brings the nobility under control
e. The Kings developed a bureaucracy to help him run the state, but they often had to ask the nobility for money, troops, etc.
i. Louis sold the rights for tax collection, but they became corrupt.
ii. Kings would sometime sell titles to raise money (“New Nobility”)
f. Monarch also had control over the church because they appointed the church officials
g. They had their own armies that were paid for by the government and were loyal to the king rather than to the nobility that donated them.
i. Monarchs often had secret police as well
h. Jean Bodin – writes during the French civil wars
i. Only an absolute monarch will be able to stop the chaos because only they can force the people to obey the government
i. Hobbes – Leviathan
i. He was a pessimist
ii. The only way to keep humanity from falling apart was to have a despot (absolute ruler) – Voltaire agreed to a degree
j. Jacques Bossuet – proponent of the divine right - no man or group that had any authority
II. French Absolutism
a. Three Estates [Clergy (1%), Nobility (3-4%), Bourgeoisie (5%)]
i. France was Europe’s largest country [20% of all of Europe]
b. The monarchy had been boosted financially by Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) [Took power in 1589]
i. First king of Bourbon
ii. Strengthened government institutions [University, treasury]
iii. 1598 Edict Nantes – some freedom [religious toleration] of the Huguenot’s
iv. He will rule until 1610 – assassinated by a monk crisis in power
1. Louis XIII was just a kid - his mother served as his regent [Maria de Medici] until he was 21
2. She didn’t rule absolutely so some of the nobility got their power back.
3. He then exiled his mother
4. His Chief adviser rules [Richelieu] – a politique put religious issues ahead of state issues
a. Intendant System – local officials has been appointed by the nobles in their area, now they were replaced by civil servants (32 districts, justice, police, finance responsibility) nobility is cut out of this loop
v. Duke of Sully – institutes mercantilism, the states get really involved in the economy, grants monopolies, subsidizes different industries, reformed the tax collection system, dug a canal from Mediterranean to the Atlantic
1. France became the most powerful and financially secure monarchy in Europe
vi. relying of new nobility not the old (the ones who had bought their nobility)
vii. Huguenots begin to lose their power again
1. Peace of Alais – Huguenots had had certain cities, Richelieu used the armies to stop that - first step to them being kicked out. Not more totally Calvinist French cities and no more armies
c. Henry IV avoided war, until the 30 Years War
i. French will be key in enforcing the treaty of Westphalia on the Hapsburg.
III. Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
a. Believed in absolutism
b. “L’etat, c’est moi.”
c. Longest rein in European history
d. In the mid to late 1640’s the Fronde – the first 6 years of his rein. The nobles didn’t like Mazarin, so they revolted
i. New cardinal – Mazarin , trying to put down the nobles
ii. Louis never trusted the nobles again – he will make most of his chief minister from the middle class
iii. Exercised control over the peasants
e. Peasants ended up keeping a little as 20% of what they made
i. Corvée – had to spent a month a year working on a pubic project
f. Religious Policies – saw himself as being the supreme catholic, very religious
i. Edict of Fontaine Bleu - rescinds the Calvinists rights in France 200,000 have to emigrate to Netherlands, UK, America
g. Versailles vs. Mercantilism France had to raise money
i. Money for the upkeep of Versailles – was a physical representation that Louis was the Sun God, It started as a hunting lodge for Louis XIII, it was designed to show what humans could do, it was a mini city of 10,000
ii. Colbert 1661-83 – was the finance minister – made France self-sufficient Bullionism – less import, more export, taxes on imports, especially in area where he wanted to give France a leg up, subsidizing some industries, reducing internal tariffs, lower the taxes between the regions of France, organized important French monopolies within their borders on trade Successful after he leaves, France is the leading industrial country in Europe, they have ships, are trading etc.
iii. However… Louis screwed it up. Internal weakness [poor peasant conditions, they were being heavily taxed, so they left] and Louis spent A LOT of money on wars. 2/3 of the time when Louis is King, France is at war eats up a bunch of the revenue, and you cut off your trade because it isn’t safe need more money more taxes, but can’t tax the nobility, so the peasants get it.
IV. French Wars – Louis was paranoid “pissing contest”
a. During the revolution they pulled down all the statues except Henry IV
b. Other EU countries band together against French
c. Wars
i. War of Devolution [1667-1668] – Louis invade the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) 2 years, he gets 12 towns out of it and gave up Burgundy (“First Dutch War)
ii. 2nd Dutch War – 1672-1778 invades the Netherlands
iii. War of the League of Augsburg [1688-97] – attacks the Spanish Netherlands again [against the league that banded together again] William of Orange is now the King of England (comes from the Netherlands) No gain for Louis
iv. War of the Spanish Succession – (1701-1713) – The will of Charles II [Hapsburg king] wills all his Spanish territory to Louis’ grandson Grand alliance – England, Netherlands, Brandenburg, HRE, Savoy, Portugal – Battle of Blenheim -> Louis forces are defeated by Marlborough (John Churchill) [1704], long slaughter for the French after that until it ends, they don’t give up
1. Treaty of Utrecht – ends the war by giving: England gets the slave trade from Spain = Britain uses a lot of slaves in its colonies and territories and Minorca and Gibraltar, Belgium goes to Austria
d. His wars were ridiculously bad destroyed the economy, 20% of the population died, huge debt by the end of the war, by the time he dies, the country is bankrupt and many are happy when he dies.
V. Spanish Colonies
a. 1500’s – Charles V [1519-56]does in Spain what Louis did in France in the 1600. His son Phillip continues [1556-98]
i. Builds the Escorial Palace
ii. Spanish economy down because of internal divisions, they expel Jews and Moors from Spain Spanish population will go from 7.5mil to 5.5 mil
iii. 1594-1680 – many times, Spain with cancel its own debt peasants beg in the street food production goes down cost of food down up
iv. Decline starts with the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1688
b. By 1640 Portugal will have broken away from Spain and it will lose its territory to France (Pyrenees go to France) by 1700 the Spanish Navy had 8 ships
VI. Baroque
a. Baroque art is a reflection of absolutism
i. Starts in catholic reformation countries
1. Helps reinforce the idea of hierarchy
b. Versailles – most famous example of Baroque architecture
i. Bernini – architect and sculptor- St. Peter’s square
ii. Schoenbrunn – Austria
iii. Russia – Winter Palace
iv. Sans Souci
c. Painting – string emotion and movement
i. Great contrast between light and dark [Tenebrism]
ii. Colour, more emotion not so precise
1. Caravaggio – using ordinary people for biblical scenes [painted Jesus’ feet dirty]
2. Rubens – Flemish painter, spent a lot of his time painting for the Hapsburg court in Brussels, known for his sensual nudes of nymphs, mythical creature
3. Velazquez – court painter in Spain
4. Gentileschi – SHE is especially known for a series feat. Judith
d. Dutch – Rembrandt, Vermeer, Hals
i. Went against the baroque style, not overwhelming the viewer, but wanted to show Dutch wealth and power, so focused on Dutch life
e. French
i. Poussain
ii. Plays – Racine[tragedies] Moliere [satire/comedy]
f. Music [late 1600 – well into the 1700]
i. Bach, Monteverdi, Handel
I. Characteristics
a. Monarchs claim to rule by Divine Right [as do their decedents]
i. Not appointed by anyone else. They are God’s representative on earth.
ii. They have the power to make laws, govern people, and control every aspect of their lives.
b. The King becomes a representative for the state/country.
i. Good, if you have a good King, not if not
ii. “Cult of Personality” – strong personality = the embodiment of the state
c. The monarch is not always subjected to a national assembly.
i. Louis XIV NEVER called the assembly [three states]
d. An absolute ruler brings the nobility under control
e. The Kings developed a bureaucracy to help him run the state, but they often had to ask the nobility for money, troops, etc.
i. Louis sold the rights for tax collection, but they became corrupt.
ii. Kings would sometime sell titles to raise money (“New Nobility”)
f. Monarch also had control over the church because they appointed the church officials
g. They had their own armies that were paid for by the government and were loyal to the king rather than to the nobility that donated them.
i. Monarchs often had secret police as well
h. Jean Bodin – writes during the French civil wars
i. Only an absolute monarch will be able to stop the chaos because only they can force the people to obey the government
i. Hobbes – Leviathan
i. He was a pessimist
ii. The only way to keep humanity from falling apart was to have a despot (absolute ruler) – Voltaire agreed to a degree
j. Jacques Bossuet – proponent of the divine right - no man or group that had any authority
II. French Absolutism
a. Three Estates [Clergy (1%), Nobility (3-4%), Bourgeoisie (5%)]
i. France was Europe’s largest country [20% of all of Europe]
b. The monarchy had been boosted financially by Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) [Took power in 1589]
i. First king of Bourbon
ii. Strengthened government institutions [University, treasury]
iii. 1598 Edict Nantes – some freedom [religious toleration] of the Huguenot’s
iv. He will rule until 1610 – assassinated by a monk crisis in power
1. Louis XIII was just a kid - his mother served as his regent [Maria de Medici] until he was 21
2. She didn’t rule absolutely so some of the nobility got their power back.
3. He then exiled his mother
4. His Chief adviser rules [Richelieu] – a politique put religious issues ahead of state issues
a. Intendant System – local officials has been appointed by the nobles in their area, now they were replaced by civil servants (32 districts, justice, police, finance responsibility) nobility is cut out of this loop
v. Duke of Sully – institutes mercantilism, the states get really involved in the economy, grants monopolies, subsidizes different industries, reformed the tax collection system, dug a canal from Mediterranean to the Atlantic
1. France became the most powerful and financially secure monarchy in Europe
vi. relying of new nobility not the old (the ones who had bought their nobility)
vii. Huguenots begin to lose their power again
1. Peace of Alais – Huguenots had had certain cities, Richelieu used the armies to stop that - first step to them being kicked out. Not more totally Calvinist French cities and no more armies
c. Henry IV avoided war, until the 30 Years War
i. French will be key in enforcing the treaty of Westphalia on the Hapsburg.
III. Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715)
a. Believed in absolutism
b. “L’etat, c’est moi.”
c. Longest rein in European history
d. In the mid to late 1640’s the Fronde – the first 6 years of his rein. The nobles didn’t like Mazarin, so they revolted
i. New cardinal – Mazarin , trying to put down the nobles
ii. Louis never trusted the nobles again – he will make most of his chief minister from the middle class
iii. Exercised control over the peasants
e. Peasants ended up keeping a little as 20% of what they made
i. Corvée – had to spent a month a year working on a pubic project
f. Religious Policies – saw himself as being the supreme catholic, very religious
i. Edict of Fontaine Bleu - rescinds the Calvinists rights in France 200,000 have to emigrate to Netherlands, UK, America
g. Versailles vs. Mercantilism France had to raise money
i. Money for the upkeep of Versailles – was a physical representation that Louis was the Sun God, It started as a hunting lodge for Louis XIII, it was designed to show what humans could do, it was a mini city of 10,000
ii. Colbert 1661-83 – was the finance minister – made France self-sufficient Bullionism – less import, more export, taxes on imports, especially in area where he wanted to give France a leg up, subsidizing some industries, reducing internal tariffs, lower the taxes between the regions of France, organized important French monopolies within their borders on trade Successful after he leaves, France is the leading industrial country in Europe, they have ships, are trading etc.
iii. However… Louis screwed it up. Internal weakness [poor peasant conditions, they were being heavily taxed, so they left] and Louis spent A LOT of money on wars. 2/3 of the time when Louis is King, France is at war eats up a bunch of the revenue, and you cut off your trade because it isn’t safe need more money more taxes, but can’t tax the nobility, so the peasants get it.
IV. French Wars – Louis was paranoid “pissing contest”
a. During the revolution they pulled down all the statues except Henry IV
b. Other EU countries band together against French
c. Wars
i. War of Devolution [1667-1668] – Louis invade the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) 2 years, he gets 12 towns out of it and gave up Burgundy (“First Dutch War)
ii. 2nd Dutch War – 1672-1778 invades the Netherlands
iii. War of the League of Augsburg [1688-97] – attacks the Spanish Netherlands again [against the league that banded together again] William of Orange is now the King of England (comes from the Netherlands) No gain for Louis
iv. War of the Spanish Succession – (1701-1713) – The will of Charles II [Hapsburg king] wills all his Spanish territory to Louis’ grandson Grand alliance – England, Netherlands, Brandenburg, HRE, Savoy, Portugal – Battle of Blenheim -> Louis forces are defeated by Marlborough (John Churchill) [1704], long slaughter for the French after that until it ends, they don’t give up
1. Treaty of Utrecht – ends the war by giving: England gets the slave trade from Spain = Britain uses a lot of slaves in its colonies and territories and Minorca and Gibraltar, Belgium goes to Austria
d. His wars were ridiculously bad destroyed the economy, 20% of the population died, huge debt by the end of the war, by the time he dies, the country is bankrupt and many are happy when he dies.
V. Spanish Colonies
a. 1500’s – Charles V [1519-56]does in Spain what Louis did in France in the 1600. His son Phillip continues [1556-98]
i. Builds the Escorial Palace
ii. Spanish economy down because of internal divisions, they expel Jews and Moors from Spain Spanish population will go from 7.5mil to 5.5 mil
iii. 1594-1680 – many times, Spain with cancel its own debt peasants beg in the street food production goes down cost of food down up
iv. Decline starts with the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1688
b. By 1640 Portugal will have broken away from Spain and it will lose its territory to France (Pyrenees go to France) by 1700 the Spanish Navy had 8 ships
VI. Baroque
a. Baroque art is a reflection of absolutism
i. Starts in catholic reformation countries
1. Helps reinforce the idea of hierarchy
b. Versailles – most famous example of Baroque architecture
i. Bernini – architect and sculptor- St. Peter’s square
ii. Schoenbrunn – Austria
iii. Russia – Winter Palace
iv. Sans Souci
c. Painting – string emotion and movement
i. Great contrast between light and dark [Tenebrism]
ii. Colour, more emotion not so precise
1. Caravaggio – using ordinary people for biblical scenes [painted Jesus’ feet dirty]
2. Rubens – Flemish painter, spent a lot of his time painting for the Hapsburg court in Brussels, known for his sensual nudes of nymphs, mythical creature
3. Velazquez – court painter in Spain
4. Gentileschi – SHE is especially known for a series feat. Judith
d. Dutch – Rembrandt, Vermeer, Hals
i. Went against the baroque style, not overwhelming the viewer, but wanted to show Dutch wealth and power, so focused on Dutch life
e. French
i. Poussain
ii. Plays – Racine[tragedies] Moliere [satire/comedy]
f. Music [late 1600 – well into the 1700]
i. Bach, Monteverdi, Handel
New Monarchs
New Monarchs
I. During the Renaissance and the Reformation
a. They were stronger, reducing the power of the nobility by taxing them and hiring mercenaries
b. Stronger than the clergy
c. Created efficient bureaucracies to enforce laws
II. France
a. Louis XI (“Spider King”)
i. Large royal army
ii. Consolidates lots of power
b. Francis I
i. Ruled for 30 years during the Reformation
ii. Concordat of Bologna - allowed the King to appoint bishops
iii. Taille – tax on all land and property
III. England
i. War of the Roses
1. York(Richard III) vs. Lancaster(later became the Tudors)
a. Henry VII started the Star Chamber
IV. Spain
a. Ferdinand and Isabella
i. The Reconquista – took Spain back from the Moors and the Jews.
ii. The Spanish Inquisition
1. Torquemada – went after heretics, especially converses
iii. Hermandades – alliances of cities to control nobles
V. Hapsburgs
a. The Holy Roman Empire
b. Maximilian I – married Valois line
c. Charles V – during the 1500’s the most powerful ruling
VI. Commercial Revolution
a. Price Revolution
i. From 1500-1600 and population increase from 70-90 million price revolution increase in demand causes prices to go up because it facilitates trade the poor get screwed
ii. specie – how much silver and gold are worth
iii. Influx in gold and silver makes prices go up at first because it allows actual trade to happen
b. More demand increase supply if good to meet demands Capitalism
c. Bourgeoisie – middle class
d. Banking becomes very important
i. Evolves in different place at different times (Medici, banking in Germanic state Hanseatic League (German city states that traded goods =EU) Fuggers)
ii. Antwerp became the banking centre of Europe, later Amsterdam when the Netherlands had their independence
e. Stronger states can tax, fight wars, distribute goods “fairly” (to their friends)
i. Chartered Companies - the state granted a charter to companies, giving them a monopoly over certain areas of productions (East India Trading Company, Dutch)
ii. Joint Stock Companies – the for-runner of our current stock markets. In the first JSC men would get together and join the money to fund an expedition
iii. Bourses – people could trade shares in different ventures
f. Government will take an interest in encouraging certain kinds of interest, for example:
i. England – The Enclosure Movement supported by the government wealthy land owners began to enclose their lands sheep on their land for Wool
1. Created the “putting out industry”, people are put to work spinning wool
2. Different to factory because you go to the factory and work in mass production, wool spinning is at home taking on extra work to make ends meet
ii. New Industries
1. Textile Industry
2. Mining (iron, steel, coal)
3. Printing [books, pamphlets, posters]
4. Ship building
5. Weaponry [canons and muskets] Arms Industry
g. New consumer goods, the products in demand Common Goods
i. Rice, Tea, Sugar – Columbian Exchange [bringing things from America to Europe and vice versa (Potatoes and Corn)] Europeans brought wheat and live stock
ii. Europeans were immune to many diseases that were brought with the live stock between half and ¾ died
iii. Columbus and his men brought back Syphilis
h. High demand for sugar leads to slave trade because the Indians proved too weak to produce it. Columbus’s son brought the first African slaves to America around 1497
i. Columbus’s discovery lead to the colonization mercantilism – exported raw goods to respective mother lands and the goods were shipped back after being made into something of more value and money was made on taxed
j. Bullionism - Spanish wanted to bring back Gold and Silver. If a country wants to be dominant then they have to have as much gold and silver as they could. You need to sell more than you buy
i. Slow transition in European society. Went from rural to more developed with towns
ii. More powerful nation states, more trade = more money for the country due to taxes more exploring
iii. French and British explorers were looking for gold and silver, but found other natural resources that can be exploited
iv. New trade created a middle class the bourgeoisie
v. Some peasant farmers are also able to increase their lot because their products are especially in demand.
vi. The nobility are not getting any money back from their peasants off their land because the feudal system is collapsing
VII. Exploration
a. Three main motives
i. God
ii. Glory
iii. Golds
b. 1492 – Behaim round globe
i. Compass and quadrant (latitude using the stars), astrolabe (latitude using star), much later the cross staff (measures latitude using the north star)
ii. Ship building innovations: caravel - smaller faster
1. Spanish ships called galleons bigger, heavier, and stable, good for African coast, but not for the Atlantic
2. Lateen Sail – take better advantage of the winds
3. Axial rudder – duh, better than oars
4. Gun Powder
c. Nations
i. Portugal – they have Prince Henry the Navigator, sent ships to the west coast of Africa
1. Bartholomew Dias – rounds the southern tip of Africa 1488 for the first time
2. Henry Patronized Exploration
3. Vasco da Gama – makes the all water sail to India which upset the Italians
4. Amerigo Vespucci – explored Brazil unlike Columbus he realized he had reached a new continent. Brazil becomes Portugal’s main colony
ii. Spain - Columbus stuck to the Caribbean
1. Patronized by Ferdinand and Isabella
2. Bartholomew de la Casas – brief account of the destruction of the Indies Columbus forced the Indians to work for gold, cut off hands etc.
3. After Columbus’s discovery the Pope makes the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal divides the Americas from north to south, so Portugal got Brazil and the slave trade
4. Balboa – discovers the Pacific Ocean in 1513 expedition across Panama
5. Magellan – voyage around the world, finished without him
6. Cortez – booty hole, conquered the Aztecs in Mexico conquistador held Montezuma for money
7. Pizarro - booty hole too, Incas in Peru to Aztecs in Mexico
a. Spanish government took a 1/5 cut
8. Encomieda System – structure of society - appointed governor of an area of the Spanish Empire.
a. The Spanish government imposed rules of how Natives could be used. Amerindians had to work so many days a week, but was given some land so they could work for themselves on other days.
i. Mestizos – children of mixed Spanish and Native blood.
ii. Creoles – full Spanish children born in the New World
9. In contrast, the Portuguese use Old Imperialism established forts and post on the West African coast and protected those and traded with the Natives.
a. Most slaves were not captured by Europeans, but bought them from Africans who had captured people from other tribes.
b. Albuquerque – invented old imperialism, governor of Goa (India)
10. People wanted to convert the Natives to Christianity
a. Xavier – missionary Portuguese
iii. Netherlands – eventually edges the Portuguese out of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and out of Ceylon
1. Dutch East India Company 1602, today Shell
iv. France – Jacques Cartier – looking for a water passage over Canada North West Passage
v. British – Cabot – exploration in New England, Sir Walter Rowley, Virginia Lost Colony. The first permanent British Colony James Town 1607
vi. Slave Trade – mid 1600’s Dutch are big, Dutch West India Company, England creates the Royal African Company in the late 1600’s. By 1800 60% are African
Extra: Diseases, European plants, tomatoes, chocolate and vanilla, beans, turkeys
VIII. Demographics – what life was like in the 16th and 17th Centuries
a. Still some nobility with their peasants in the country side.
i. Peasants make up the majority of the rural population.
ii. Now, because there is a middle class, more and more peasants are able to own their own and or get paid more modern economy. But it still sucks not having a land.
b. IN towns, more trade and industry emergence of the bourgeoisie
i. Creation of trade guilds [trade unions] – set standards in that town, who gets what jobs, people have to be trained, for example by a master as an apprentice.
ii. Higher literacy rates because of more education, more printed material available [e.g. the Bible]
c. Long Century [1450-1650] – population boom = good, replenishing after the Black Death.
i. 1650-1750 – population levels level off, then boom again because of agricultural innovations = more colonies [in the 1600’s, but explosive growth in the 1700’s because of population growth]
d. Life expectancy – men [27], women [25], brought down by infant mortality rates and mother deaths.
IX. Witch Hunts
a. Between 1400-1700 between 70,000-100,000 people are killed for being witches
i. Victims were often poor, elderly women, unmarried
ii. Catholic church promoted witch hunts
iii. Hunter were often in rural areas – looking for a scapegoat
iv. Women were more likely to engage in occupations where they could be blames [midwives]
v. Allowed village leaders to keep control by blaming others, they wanted to avoid mob rule
vi. Beginning of insurance companies – reduces witch hunting
vii. The reformation will reduce witch hunts because they believe that God is a spiritual thing, so lack of fairy tales etc.
I. During the Renaissance and the Reformation
a. They were stronger, reducing the power of the nobility by taxing them and hiring mercenaries
b. Stronger than the clergy
c. Created efficient bureaucracies to enforce laws
II. France
a. Louis XI (“Spider King”)
i. Large royal army
ii. Consolidates lots of power
b. Francis I
i. Ruled for 30 years during the Reformation
ii. Concordat of Bologna - allowed the King to appoint bishops
iii. Taille – tax on all land and property
III. England
i. War of the Roses
1. York(Richard III) vs. Lancaster(later became the Tudors)
a. Henry VII started the Star Chamber
IV. Spain
a. Ferdinand and Isabella
i. The Reconquista – took Spain back from the Moors and the Jews.
ii. The Spanish Inquisition
1. Torquemada – went after heretics, especially converses
iii. Hermandades – alliances of cities to control nobles
V. Hapsburgs
a. The Holy Roman Empire
b. Maximilian I – married Valois line
c. Charles V – during the 1500’s the most powerful ruling
VI. Commercial Revolution
a. Price Revolution
i. From 1500-1600 and population increase from 70-90 million price revolution increase in demand causes prices to go up because it facilitates trade the poor get screwed
ii. specie – how much silver and gold are worth
iii. Influx in gold and silver makes prices go up at first because it allows actual trade to happen
b. More demand increase supply if good to meet demands Capitalism
c. Bourgeoisie – middle class
d. Banking becomes very important
i. Evolves in different place at different times (Medici, banking in Germanic state Hanseatic League (German city states that traded goods =EU) Fuggers)
ii. Antwerp became the banking centre of Europe, later Amsterdam when the Netherlands had their independence
e. Stronger states can tax, fight wars, distribute goods “fairly” (to their friends)
i. Chartered Companies - the state granted a charter to companies, giving them a monopoly over certain areas of productions (East India Trading Company, Dutch)
ii. Joint Stock Companies – the for-runner of our current stock markets. In the first JSC men would get together and join the money to fund an expedition
iii. Bourses – people could trade shares in different ventures
f. Government will take an interest in encouraging certain kinds of interest, for example:
i. England – The Enclosure Movement supported by the government wealthy land owners began to enclose their lands sheep on their land for Wool
1. Created the “putting out industry”, people are put to work spinning wool
2. Different to factory because you go to the factory and work in mass production, wool spinning is at home taking on extra work to make ends meet
ii. New Industries
1. Textile Industry
2. Mining (iron, steel, coal)
3. Printing [books, pamphlets, posters]
4. Ship building
5. Weaponry [canons and muskets] Arms Industry
g. New consumer goods, the products in demand Common Goods
i. Rice, Tea, Sugar – Columbian Exchange [bringing things from America to Europe and vice versa (Potatoes and Corn)] Europeans brought wheat and live stock
ii. Europeans were immune to many diseases that were brought with the live stock between half and ¾ died
iii. Columbus and his men brought back Syphilis
h. High demand for sugar leads to slave trade because the Indians proved too weak to produce it. Columbus’s son brought the first African slaves to America around 1497
i. Columbus’s discovery lead to the colonization mercantilism – exported raw goods to respective mother lands and the goods were shipped back after being made into something of more value and money was made on taxed
j. Bullionism - Spanish wanted to bring back Gold and Silver. If a country wants to be dominant then they have to have as much gold and silver as they could. You need to sell more than you buy
i. Slow transition in European society. Went from rural to more developed with towns
ii. More powerful nation states, more trade = more money for the country due to taxes more exploring
iii. French and British explorers were looking for gold and silver, but found other natural resources that can be exploited
iv. New trade created a middle class the bourgeoisie
v. Some peasant farmers are also able to increase their lot because their products are especially in demand.
vi. The nobility are not getting any money back from their peasants off their land because the feudal system is collapsing
VII. Exploration
a. Three main motives
i. God
ii. Glory
iii. Golds
b. 1492 – Behaim round globe
i. Compass and quadrant (latitude using the stars), astrolabe (latitude using star), much later the cross staff (measures latitude using the north star)
ii. Ship building innovations: caravel - smaller faster
1. Spanish ships called galleons bigger, heavier, and stable, good for African coast, but not for the Atlantic
2. Lateen Sail – take better advantage of the winds
3. Axial rudder – duh, better than oars
4. Gun Powder
c. Nations
i. Portugal – they have Prince Henry the Navigator, sent ships to the west coast of Africa
1. Bartholomew Dias – rounds the southern tip of Africa 1488 for the first time
2. Henry Patronized Exploration
3. Vasco da Gama – makes the all water sail to India which upset the Italians
4. Amerigo Vespucci – explored Brazil unlike Columbus he realized he had reached a new continent. Brazil becomes Portugal’s main colony
ii. Spain - Columbus stuck to the Caribbean
1. Patronized by Ferdinand and Isabella
2. Bartholomew de la Casas – brief account of the destruction of the Indies Columbus forced the Indians to work for gold, cut off hands etc.
3. After Columbus’s discovery the Pope makes the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal divides the Americas from north to south, so Portugal got Brazil and the slave trade
4. Balboa – discovers the Pacific Ocean in 1513 expedition across Panama
5. Magellan – voyage around the world, finished without him
6. Cortez – booty hole, conquered the Aztecs in Mexico conquistador held Montezuma for money
7. Pizarro - booty hole too, Incas in Peru to Aztecs in Mexico
a. Spanish government took a 1/5 cut
8. Encomieda System – structure of society - appointed governor of an area of the Spanish Empire.
a. The Spanish government imposed rules of how Natives could be used. Amerindians had to work so many days a week, but was given some land so they could work for themselves on other days.
i. Mestizos – children of mixed Spanish and Native blood.
ii. Creoles – full Spanish children born in the New World
9. In contrast, the Portuguese use Old Imperialism established forts and post on the West African coast and protected those and traded with the Natives.
a. Most slaves were not captured by Europeans, but bought them from Africans who had captured people from other tribes.
b. Albuquerque – invented old imperialism, governor of Goa (India)
10. People wanted to convert the Natives to Christianity
a. Xavier – missionary Portuguese
iii. Netherlands – eventually edges the Portuguese out of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and out of Ceylon
1. Dutch East India Company 1602, today Shell
iv. France – Jacques Cartier – looking for a water passage over Canada North West Passage
v. British – Cabot – exploration in New England, Sir Walter Rowley, Virginia Lost Colony. The first permanent British Colony James Town 1607
vi. Slave Trade – mid 1600’s Dutch are big, Dutch West India Company, England creates the Royal African Company in the late 1600’s. By 1800 60% are African
Extra: Diseases, European plants, tomatoes, chocolate and vanilla, beans, turkeys
VIII. Demographics – what life was like in the 16th and 17th Centuries
a. Still some nobility with their peasants in the country side.
i. Peasants make up the majority of the rural population.
ii. Now, because there is a middle class, more and more peasants are able to own their own and or get paid more modern economy. But it still sucks not having a land.
b. IN towns, more trade and industry emergence of the bourgeoisie
i. Creation of trade guilds [trade unions] – set standards in that town, who gets what jobs, people have to be trained, for example by a master as an apprentice.
ii. Higher literacy rates because of more education, more printed material available [e.g. the Bible]
c. Long Century [1450-1650] – population boom = good, replenishing after the Black Death.
i. 1650-1750 – population levels level off, then boom again because of agricultural innovations = more colonies [in the 1600’s, but explosive growth in the 1700’s because of population growth]
d. Life expectancy – men [27], women [25], brought down by infant mortality rates and mother deaths.
IX. Witch Hunts
a. Between 1400-1700 between 70,000-100,000 people are killed for being witches
i. Victims were often poor, elderly women, unmarried
ii. Catholic church promoted witch hunts
iii. Hunter were often in rural areas – looking for a scapegoat
iv. Women were more likely to engage in occupations where they could be blames [midwives]
v. Allowed village leaders to keep control by blaming others, they wanted to avoid mob rule
vi. Beginning of insurance companies – reduces witch hunting
vii. The reformation will reduce witch hunts because they believe that God is a spiritual thing, so lack of fairy tales etc.
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