Age of Real Politik (1848-1871)
I. Failed Revolutions of 1848
a. Germany – Frankfurt parliament that failed to get the support of Frederick Wilhelm IV of Prussia, because he believed in the divine right of Kings (Humiliation of Olmutz)
i. He had proposed his own plan for unity, Austria says it will agree, but only if Prussia will submit to the German Bund (which is dominated by the Austrians)
b. Italy also failed at unification (because they are divided)
c. Kossuth – Hungarians are within sight of Vienna, but the Austrians are able to get their act together in time
d. France – they overthrow the citizen King Louis Phillip – established to second republic , Lamartine becomes leader, but they get their act together Louis Napoleon (conservative)
e. Conservatives are in Power everywhere in continental Europe
f. Real Politik pragmatic politics, you get what you want by doing what it takes to get it done, practicality
i. Nationalism – unify Germany/Italy… Machiavelli – you do what you need to do to get the political power you want. In order to do this, you have to be Machiavellian
ii. By the end of the period they will be well on their way to achieving German and Italian unification, as Hungarian autonomy within the Austrian Empire, and French Liberals getting power in France
II. Crimean War (1853-1856) – up until this point we had had peace, the great powers had kept the peace, now we have war.
a. The immediate cause of the Crimean war was because of a problem in Palestine
i. There was a dispute in Palestine because it was controlled by the Ottoman Empire (Muslim) and the Christians wanted to be able to Jerusalem
1. The Ottoman Empire agrees to enclaves to protect Catholics in the Holy Land, but there are already enclaves controlled by the Greek Orthodox, who are favored by the Russian Orthodox East vs. West
2. When the Turks cut this deal, the Orthodox are unhappy, Ottoman areas on the Danube are occupied in retaliation, Turks declare war on the Russians
3. Russia expected the alliance when the Turks declared War on them, because they had pledged to maintain peace, instead, Britain and France declare war on Russia in 1854
4. Real Politik – you can’t have the main trade route, Danube, blocked. Ideally, you would support your fellow Christians, but politically, they backed the Muslims
ii. Four Points set by the Alliance:
1. Give provinces back
2. International navigation of the Danube (which goes all the way to the black sea)
3. Russia had to renounce its special role as protector of orthodox people in the Ottoman Empire
4.
iii. Piedmont joined in 1855, Austria threatened to get into the war itself
iv. 1855 – Russia: there was a little coup, Nicholas II dies, Alexander II, the next tsar, isn’t interested in the old war, so it ends in 1856
b. It was called the Crimean war because most of the fighting took place in Crimea, a peninsula in the Black Sea,
c. There were mainly British and French troupes fighting the Russians, 50,000 of them (Sebastopol – sea port)
d. Florence Nightingale comes to the forefront – modernizes the medical procedures, cut the death toll considerably, most of the deaths were from disease and infections
e. Peace treaty signed in Paris
i. Russia gives up maritime control of the Danube
ii. It renounces its claims to Moldavia and Wallachia (Romania)
iii. Russia renounces its role as protector of orthodox people in the Ottoman Empire
iv. Give the provinces back to the Ottoman Empire
v. They had to recognize the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire
vi. They give up maritime dominance of the Black Sea
f. Russia will see that it is behind and try to modernize, but fail miserably
III. France 2nd Republic (1848-1852)
a. Unicameral Legislature
b. Strong executive power
c. Universal male suffrage
d. Popularly elected president – Louis Napoleon, Conservative, rejected socialism and radicalism, support by the church ,the army, property owner, business people, because he spent a lot of his life outside of France, he didn’t have a lot of political alliances that people could attack his for, they also liked him for his name
i. He had to make concessions to the Conservatives because he needed supporters – Falloux Laws – returned education to the church
ii. Supported policies that supported the army
iii. After he was elected, he cut many poor people from the voting roles (no more universal suffrage)
iv. Destroyed what was left of the democratic and socialist movement by exiling and jailing its leaders
v. Opposed labor unions
vi. One would have expected the conservatives to support him – he wanted them to pay off his debt, they wouldn’t even give him his salary he starts plotting a coup to become emperor and he does – created the second empire
1. It is sometimes called a liberal empire because he was merely a president with complete power, he restores universal male suffrage, has an election where 92% of the voters vote him as president for 10 years, then he has another vote in 1853 where 97% vote him hereditary emperor for life
vii. He will rule directly and authoritarian until 1859, they will still have elections, but with only specially elected voters
1. Aristocracy of businessmen
viii. Has a change of heart in 1859 and begins to build a liberal empire – wants to make France more liberal in the traditional sense, give the people more power
e. Napoleons reforms
i. Economic Reforms
1. Infrastructure (railroads, canals, bridges, deconstructs and rebuilds Paris, sewers)
2. Moves towards free trade (French exports will double 1853-1864)
3. Signs a liberal trade agreement with UK
4. Creates a national bank for industrial financing (Credit Mobilier) – invest all over the world, finance all over the world
ii. Political reforms
1. Universal suffrage, strengthens the legislature
2. Ease censorship and grants amnesty to prisoners
3. Allows criticism of his government
4. Control over secondary education to the state
5. Support credit unions
6. Allows workers unions to strike
7. Regulation of pawn shops which used to rip off the poor
iii. His foreign policy issues will destroy him
1. Sent French troops to Italy to rescue the pope, he sent them in 1849, they stay until 1870
2. Pisses a lot of people off by getting involved in the Crimean War (domestic opposition)
3. Engages in colonialism (Algeria, Indo-China (until the 1950’s) and Mexico)
4. The thing that crushes him is the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)the Prussians kick French ass…he is captured, etc.
IV. Italian Unification – now have Italy instead of a bunch of states
a. Yet another revolution, this time using real politik to consolidate this nationalistic movement
b. King Victor Emmanuel – of Sardinia – Piedmont, centered around the port of Genoa
i. Count Cavour is his Prime Minister, he does things in his name (1852-1861)
1. Also the editor of a newspaper Il Risorgimento Sardinia should be the new foundation of the Italian republic, at the centre of Italian Unification
2. He builds piedmont Sardinia into a liberal, powerful state
3. He models the new constitution on the French constitution
4. Reforms the judicial system
f. Passes a couple of laws that piss off the public
i. The law on convents and the Siccardi Law both designed to reduce the power of the catholic church
ii. The pope issues the syllabus of errors
5. He works on Italy in sections
f. Started with the north-central areas. He joins France and Britain against Russia, if Austria and Sardinia go to war, they will help Sardinia
g. Plombieres – the promise that Napoleon III makes in this regard
i. This helps make a new Kingdom centered around Piedmont
h. It will give France Nice and the Savoy which are in modern day France in exchange for their help
ii. Austria will declare war on Sardinia in 1859 and got territories, incl. Lombardi, later will annex Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, but they won’t get Venice
c. Garibaldi – and his army will try to unify the southern states
i. They land on Sicily and use it as a base
ii. Creates the Kingdom of Two Sicily’s and eventually takes control of Naples
iii. He was supported by King Emmanuel, allowed hid southern territories to be absorbed by Sardinia Piedmont
iv. February 1861 – Emmanuel declares himself King of Italy (except the papal states and Venice)
1. He has Parliament etc.
d. Austro-Prussian War (1866) – if Prussia will pressure Venice into joining the Kingdom of Italy, then Italy will open up a southern front on Austria to help the Prussians
i. They Get Venice
ii. 1871 – they will capture and incorporate Rome
e. Italy is now unified as a political unit, but not culturally
i. Industrializing , progressive north and a stagnant, agrarian south
Why did Italian Unification work this time…?
The collaboration between different powers in Italy who were unified under a common cause left little room for protest. This time the unification attempts weren’t lead by uncontrolled, revolutionaries but intelligent, unified powers with a common cause. Also, luck was on their side with some good deals and alliances with Prussia. REAL POLTIK – practical manipulation by leaders rather than waiting around for something to happen in France
V. German Unification
a. Hohenzollerns – why hadn’t German unified by this time
i. Humiliation of Olmutz – Austria insisted that they would be able to still control their German States
ii. Frederick III refused to take the crown
iii. Gross deutsch plan is Dead
iv. Zoll Verein pissed the Austrians off
b. Germans seek to unite under the klein deutsch plan – reunification without Austria (Real Politik)
c. Otto von Bismarck (1810-1898) – from the upper class (Junkers)
i. Came up with the Gap Theory – having trouble reforming the Army
1. He insists there is a gap in the constitution because it doesn’t say what to do it there is a stalemate like this
2. It is up to the King to decide what to do with the gap
3. He convinced the King to ignore the liberal in parliament and just get done what needed to be done and fill the gap
f. This pissed people off
ii. There continue to be problems between the King and Bismarck and the Parliament and they won’t approve the budget. However, they still continue to collect taxes and spend money
iii. Bismarck just does the reforms to improve the military
iv. The voters keep sending back liberal majorities and he keeps ignoring them (1862-66)
v. He reforms the military because he wants to use it…
1. Vs. Denmark (weak team) … little war with Denmark in 1863
f. The Austrians help them to get Schleswig and Holstein. They are supposed to be jointly administered by Austria and Prussia… Yeah right…
2. Austro-Prussian War (1866) … Seven Weeks War, sometimes called the German Civil War…they wanted to defeat the Austrian troupes to get control of the unified Germany
f. Bismarck negotiated with France, Russia, Italy
g. Prussia has better technology (better rail roads they can move their troupes more quickly and in greater masses, they also had better guns (breach loading rifles))
h. This war was a bit of a pretext for Bismarck
i. He gives Austria generous peace terms, but Prussia can them gain control over the rest of Germany speaking Europe
vi. He forms the North German Confederation – the government model for Germany even today - did not include all of the German states (Baden, Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony)
vii. Government – parliament (Reichstag) two houses of equal power, upper house Bundesrat (appointed representatives from each state)Bundestag (representatives elected by universal male suffrage)
viii. This gives Bismarck more power because he can circumvent the liberals and go straight to the working class because now everyone gets to vote and the middle class will be less represented
ix. Franco-Prussia (1870-71) – Em’s Dispatch (kicking out the diplomat)
1. Wanted to war to unite the people because he wanted to annex the Alsace Lorraine region
2. They kicked ass
d. Spain is getting a new King and there is some dispute over who that should be
i. Bismarck uses this as an excuse the kick out a French diplomat
ii. By boasting about it he can provoke France
iii. The feeling of unity allows him to get the other states to be part of unity and he has a totally unifies Germany
iv. The Prussian army totally kicks ass (WWI wasn’t the first time Paris fell to the Germans) – they capture Napoleon III
v. Treaty of Frankfurt – the final peace treaty. Bismarck wants a piece of France (Alsace Lorraine, which he gets in 1871)
vi. Germany is now able to declare itself an empire (Kaiser Wilhelm) and it is now the German Empire and Bismarck is now the Empyreal Chancellor
vii. One other little thing…. By this time the Bundesrat and bundestag have very little power because they are now more of a military dictatorship … he listens to Bismarck, the advisor who made him Kaiser
VI. Austro-Hungarian Empire
a. After getting their butts kicked by the Prussians the Austrians had to get their act together
i. Bohemians (Czechs)and the Hungarian (Magyars) – they want some autonomy
ii. Austria is weak so it has to make a compromise – Ausgleich, now it the Austro-Hungarian empire instead of only the Austrian Empire they split the Empire (1867)
b. How do you manage this division?
i. The most divisive issue was the language in which children should be taught
ii. Tensions between liberals and conservatives
iii. It lags behind in terms of suffrage (they won’t get it until 1901)
iv. Anti-Semitism (10% Jewish by 1910) Freud
c. Magyars get their nobility and aristocracy restored and use this power to subjugate peasants and minorities they piss of the Croats and the Romanians
d. The empire starts splitting apart, the Hapsburgs don’t have enough control
e. Watershed year: 1871
Saturday 27 February 2010
19th Century Society
19th Century Society
I. 2nd Industrial Revolution (British won the 1st Industrial Revolution)
a. Bessemer Steal Process
i. Stronger steal, no longer iron
ii. Change in energy – from coal wood/steam oil kerosene, eventually electricity (first electrical generating stations in 1881 in England
iii. Germany becomes a chemical leader (dyes, soaps, explosives, drugs)
iv. Skilled workers with expertise are in demand (engineering, architecture, accountants, chemists) – science and industry become linked
v. Urbanization – now more people live in the cities than in the country side – management is needed – people who can manage other people
vi. Germany over takes England in the 1890’s
vii. 1890’s – over half the people work for a company with more than 20 employees
II. Urbanization - 1891 – over half of the British live in urban areas
a. Over 9 cities will have a population of over 1 million
b. Better nutrition and medical knowledge – increase birth rates and life expectancy – also changed housing and living conditions within the housing
c. Open sewers, no public transportation in earlier times, so sanitary conditions improved
i. Public health movement (Edwin Chadwick [Benthomite]) – it would be cheaper to have close drains compared to all the costs that would come from all the dead heads of families
ii. 1848 – First public law – sewer etc.
d. George von Haussmann - commissioned by Napoleon III to design the sewer system in Paris and the rest of it too – knocks down inner city slums and builds new inner city middle class housing - over 400 miles of underground sewer systems
e. Electric street cars in the bid cities by the 1890’s (only 9% of Britain will be over crowed by 1900
f. Migration– from the countryside to the cities, within a country
g. Emigration – moving countries, especially southern and eastern Europeans
i. They went from empire states to freer countries
ii. Pogroms – Jews fled Russia due to anti-Semitism
III. Social restructuring – in the history of the world there wasn’t a greater time of social restructuring than this time
a. Major changes – increased standard of living. There is still a huge gap between the wealthy and the working class, but there is the development of a solid middle class, and even the working class got a bump in terms of their standard of living – mass production allows goods to be cheaper so they can be afforded by even the poor and the lower middle class
i. For example, wages and consumption increase between 1820 -1850 by about 50% HUGE. It tapers off in Britain as it increases in other countries
ii. Need for experts – managers (more people), engineers (need extreme technical knowhow), chemists (produce and create new chemicals), architects (more people living in one area), accountants (a whole new profession just to keep track of the finances of these new, big businesses), surveyors (how to a lot, measure and manage property) – more people, a meter here or there will make a huge difference, unlike in fields.
1. Now there is a market for renters
2. White color professions come in existence
iii. The will be a breakdown of the class system because there is a greater middle class and if everyone is either upper/low/middle class, then there is no reason to struggle. Marx’s theory of Communism depended on there only being two class
iv. Across Europe, the middle class at this time was around average 20%, upper class 5%, and working class 75%. The middle class has three level – upper[bankers, industrialist, top government officials]/middle [small business men, merchants, doctors, lawyer, civil servants, pharmacists](imitated the upper class, they had servants (a household), middle had far fewer servants, maybe one, a cook, a maid etc.). Lower middle class “petite bourgeoisie” [clerks, teachers, craftsmen (goldsmith)], it goes from 7% 1850 – 20% 1900
b. Middle class was the smallest % of the population in Russia (only 2%) – Communist Revolution, even though Marx said it had to be an industrialist country
c. Characteristics of the middle class
i. Wanted protection of private property – with constitutionalism, they put their faith in representative democracy
ii. Tried to increase their political participation through land ownership and voting
iii. Saw the family as the foundation of the social order
iv. Believed in frugality, even though they often spent money on servants
v. Believed in education and religion
vi. Often were strong nationalists
d. Characteristics of the Working
i. Even less unified than the middle class
ii. At the top of the working class about 15% were the labour aristocracy (the working class also had divisions like the middle class) – this included foremen, bosses, skilled workers (top 15%), they also got paid more
1. Next – semi-skilled workers (huge chunk in the middle) – brick layers, carpenters, successful factory workers
2. Bottom – unskilled workers – work in factories, carrying stuff, loading stuff, domestic servants (cooks, maids, etc), domestic service was a woman’s profession (in 1900 over half the working women in England were domestic [cooking/cleaning]),
3. They still had child labour, even still in factories (1873 – 14% of English textile workers were children)
e. Changing family – the new main reason for marriage in the middle class became Romantic love
i. Rising living standards allowed them to marry younger
ii. Economic status still factored in, but less
iii. Before children…sex…foreplay!
iv. Chastity - became very important, they made sure the foreplay and all that DIDN’T happen until they were married
v. Before there was a relatively high illegitimacy rate, after 1850 it goes down drastically (more pressure for the guy to marry her)
vi. There is a market for prostitution because the women from their own class weren’t available
vii. Men will marry later – “settle down” adultery is frowned upon, men are punished more lightly than women
viii. After 1850 women (middle class) are not supposed to work, they should manage the household, men are the primary bread winners
ix. Women demanded better education
x. Childrearing becomes more important because kids now have a better chance of surviving, so you become more attached it. Few wet nurses, special immunizations from breastfeeding yourself
xi. Child raising books
xii. Children from the working class go to work sooner (when they reach adolescence)
IV. Fin du Siècle/ Belle Époque (1895-1914)
a. Better living, especially in nothern Europe (Germany, Britain, France) – wages are increasing while the price of food in decreasing. In UK, wages will almost double again
i. Sports kicked off – bicycling
ii. This will have an effect of fashion – women especially, looser clothing, got rid of the whale bone corsets
b. Pubs kicked off / taverns
c. Increased consumption, all this money spent on sports/ cafes and taverns department stores
d. Dance halls and music halls
e. Telephones, light bulbs, radio, automobiles, gramophone (record player), motion pictures
f. Government spending on education for children (1900- all children from 5-12 years were required to attend school in England) in France, 3-13
i. Huge increase in literacy – but men still had a higher literacy rate than women, people in the cities still had a higher literacy rates, people and western Europe still had higher literacy rates
ii. By 1900, the literacy rate in Germany was 99%, in Russia it was 25%
iii. At the end of primary school, girls were discriminated against, families could afford to send all their children to secondary education, so they sent the men (working class)
iv. Middle class – invested more in the women so they had better marriage prospects
V. Scientific Advances (science almost becomes a religion for some people)
a. Bacteria revolution -
i. Louis Pasteur (fermentation was caused by the growth of living organisms, which can be killed by heating it, reduction of food poisoning)
ii. Joseph Lister – antiseptic principal, Listerine, applied un surgery, they sterilized instrument, people were dying of infections
iii. Edward Jenner – pioneered vaccination (typhoid, cholera, small pox)
iv. Mendeleev – periodic table (1869)
v. Faraday – analyzes the principles of electro magnetism, develops the first dynamo (electrical generator)
vi. Comte – developed Sociology idea that you can define certain principles to regulate activity – trying to control society by regulating it
vii. Biology – Charles Darwin – evolution
1. Social Darwinism – Herbert Spencer (later becomes a justification of imperialism)
2. Huxley defended evolution
viii. Freud – geniuses of the 19th century – Marx, Darwin, Freud
1. Humans are irrational creatures, personalities defined by hidden feelings, repressed sexuality
ix. Marie Curie – radiation – husband Pierre, died of radiation poisoning
1. Rutherford – split the atom, realized that the atoms have nuclei
2. Max Plank – quantum theory - matter and energy might be two forms of the same thing
3. Einstein - does for physics what Darwin does for Bio and what Freud does for Psych – theory of Relativity – things like time and space are relative to the viewer, the only constant is the speed light
a. E=mc2 – it equates mass and energy = controversial
x. Three major scientific things = three major philosophical view
1. Darwin= undermines the bible version of human creation
2. Freud says that people are not rational undermines the Enlightenment
3. Einstein – refutes Newtonian physics – the very building blocks of the universe are relative = uncertainty in people’s minds
a. All this is shown in WWI – maybe we do give into our animal instincts
VI. Catholic challenges
a. In this time the catholic church finds itself under assault like it hasn’t been since the reformation
i. Nationalism is hurting it – it used to be nationality in itself almost
ii. Now people see the catholic church as being against nationalism (why should only be Italian popes, why should they tell, say, the French what to do)
b. Bismarck is Majorly against Catholicism
i. Kultur Kampf – there are two areas in Europe that are trying to become nations – Germany and Italy – as part of this they attack the Catholic church
1. The pope responds, in the most logical way possible, by attacking them
a. Pope Pius IX – Syllabus of errors (1864) – condemns liberalism and the unification of Italy
b. The Vatican council will then, six years later, issue the Doctrine of Papal Infallibility (it will only be repealed recently)
2. Pope Leo XIII – another counter reformation – Rerum Novarum (1891) trying to allow Catholics to participate in the politics of new liberal states (such as Germany) – he does condemn socialism and Marxism, defends private property (capitalism), workers should be paid a living wage, capitalists are responsible for providing this, supports laws that protect workers big turnaround from the beginning of the century
a. We start to catholic parties (CSU/CDU)
b. However, there is still a lowering of church attendance by the lower class
VII. Realism – more science, more rationality – see the world the way it really is
a. In part, a reaction to the revolutions of 1848
b. Literature
i. Balzac – a lot about coffee houses… wrote The Human Comedy – depicts urban society and grasping, like the jungle, dog eat dog, criticizing the brutality of Urban life
ii. Flaubert – Madam Bovary it shows the pettiness and the hypocrisy of the middle class
iii. Zola – Germinal depicts the hard life of minors in northern France
iv. George Elliot – (Mary Anne Evans) – criticizes the way classes exploit other classes
v. Thomas Hardy – Tess of the D’Urbervilles – a young woman from a lower class is abused by the son of her master and ends up getting killed for having premarital sex
vi. Tolstoy – fatalistic view of the world
vii. Scandinavia gives us Henry Ibsen – he started as a very unrealistic playwright (father of modern realism) worked together with Grieg (Pyre Gynt )
1. A dolls House – the woman walks out on her husband, is forced to change the ending
2. Ghosts – character dies of venereal disease
3. Hedda gobler – suicide
c. Sell artwork rather than patrons
i. France is once again the centre of the art world
ii. The realistic painters want to paint things the way they are
iii. Courbet – coined the term realism
iv. Millet – farmers, women harvesting
v. Daumier – painted “Third Class Carriage”
vi. Degas – “Laundry Girls Ironing”
vii. The artists did not stay in realistic mode, they got bored because of photography, so they moved into Impressionism
viii. Manet – moved into impressionism, got people all hot and bothered because of a couple of paintings “Luncheon of the Grass” – nude female with two clothed males and “Olympia” portrait, nude prostitute
VIII. Impressionism – because photography could take realistic pictures, so they tried to capture the moment, the impression.
a. Used light and the blurring if images, showed brush strokes
i. Monet
ii. Renoir
iii. Pissarro
b. Post- Impressionism Expressionism
i. People keep getting farther and farther out there (even though expressionism won’t be coined as a term until after WWI)
ii. Van Gogh
iii. Paul Gaugin – pioneered expressionistic techniques, famous especially for his paintings of the South Pacific (naked women on beaches) – very avant garde style
iv. Cezanne – started to move away from traditional 3D, realistic paintings to more 2D expressionist painting
v. The major avant garde painters, that go into the 20th century, prior to WWII
1. Matisse – lead a group of painters whose work were called expressionism, painted real objects, but were more interesting in color, line and form, so they messed them up, were called the “wild beasts” by the critics
2. Picasso – cubism, Spanish, geometric, zigzagging things, cuts things down into cubes and geometric patterns to emphasize them, rather than hide them
3. Braque – worked with Picasso, continues to develop cubism
4. Kandinsky – Russian, trends to go completely away from form, into colors, expression, goes beyond cubism
I. 2nd Industrial Revolution (British won the 1st Industrial Revolution)
a. Bessemer Steal Process
i. Stronger steal, no longer iron
ii. Change in energy – from coal wood/steam oil kerosene, eventually electricity (first electrical generating stations in 1881 in England
iii. Germany becomes a chemical leader (dyes, soaps, explosives, drugs)
iv. Skilled workers with expertise are in demand (engineering, architecture, accountants, chemists) – science and industry become linked
v. Urbanization – now more people live in the cities than in the country side – management is needed – people who can manage other people
vi. Germany over takes England in the 1890’s
vii. 1890’s – over half the people work for a company with more than 20 employees
II. Urbanization - 1891 – over half of the British live in urban areas
a. Over 9 cities will have a population of over 1 million
b. Better nutrition and medical knowledge – increase birth rates and life expectancy – also changed housing and living conditions within the housing
c. Open sewers, no public transportation in earlier times, so sanitary conditions improved
i. Public health movement (Edwin Chadwick [Benthomite]) – it would be cheaper to have close drains compared to all the costs that would come from all the dead heads of families
ii. 1848 – First public law – sewer etc.
d. George von Haussmann - commissioned by Napoleon III to design the sewer system in Paris and the rest of it too – knocks down inner city slums and builds new inner city middle class housing - over 400 miles of underground sewer systems
e. Electric street cars in the bid cities by the 1890’s (only 9% of Britain will be over crowed by 1900
f. Migration– from the countryside to the cities, within a country
g. Emigration – moving countries, especially southern and eastern Europeans
i. They went from empire states to freer countries
ii. Pogroms – Jews fled Russia due to anti-Semitism
III. Social restructuring – in the history of the world there wasn’t a greater time of social restructuring than this time
a. Major changes – increased standard of living. There is still a huge gap between the wealthy and the working class, but there is the development of a solid middle class, and even the working class got a bump in terms of their standard of living – mass production allows goods to be cheaper so they can be afforded by even the poor and the lower middle class
i. For example, wages and consumption increase between 1820 -1850 by about 50% HUGE. It tapers off in Britain as it increases in other countries
ii. Need for experts – managers (more people), engineers (need extreme technical knowhow), chemists (produce and create new chemicals), architects (more people living in one area), accountants (a whole new profession just to keep track of the finances of these new, big businesses), surveyors (how to a lot, measure and manage property) – more people, a meter here or there will make a huge difference, unlike in fields.
1. Now there is a market for renters
2. White color professions come in existence
iii. The will be a breakdown of the class system because there is a greater middle class and if everyone is either upper/low/middle class, then there is no reason to struggle. Marx’s theory of Communism depended on there only being two class
iv. Across Europe, the middle class at this time was around average 20%, upper class 5%, and working class 75%. The middle class has three level – upper[bankers, industrialist, top government officials]/middle [small business men, merchants, doctors, lawyer, civil servants, pharmacists](imitated the upper class, they had servants (a household), middle had far fewer servants, maybe one, a cook, a maid etc.). Lower middle class “petite bourgeoisie” [clerks, teachers, craftsmen (goldsmith)], it goes from 7% 1850 – 20% 1900
b. Middle class was the smallest % of the population in Russia (only 2%) – Communist Revolution, even though Marx said it had to be an industrialist country
c. Characteristics of the middle class
i. Wanted protection of private property – with constitutionalism, they put their faith in representative democracy
ii. Tried to increase their political participation through land ownership and voting
iii. Saw the family as the foundation of the social order
iv. Believed in frugality, even though they often spent money on servants
v. Believed in education and religion
vi. Often were strong nationalists
d. Characteristics of the Working
i. Even less unified than the middle class
ii. At the top of the working class about 15% were the labour aristocracy (the working class also had divisions like the middle class) – this included foremen, bosses, skilled workers (top 15%), they also got paid more
1. Next – semi-skilled workers (huge chunk in the middle) – brick layers, carpenters, successful factory workers
2. Bottom – unskilled workers – work in factories, carrying stuff, loading stuff, domestic servants (cooks, maids, etc), domestic service was a woman’s profession (in 1900 over half the working women in England were domestic [cooking/cleaning]),
3. They still had child labour, even still in factories (1873 – 14% of English textile workers were children)
e. Changing family – the new main reason for marriage in the middle class became Romantic love
i. Rising living standards allowed them to marry younger
ii. Economic status still factored in, but less
iii. Before children…sex…foreplay!
iv. Chastity - became very important, they made sure the foreplay and all that DIDN’T happen until they were married
v. Before there was a relatively high illegitimacy rate, after 1850 it goes down drastically (more pressure for the guy to marry her)
vi. There is a market for prostitution because the women from their own class weren’t available
vii. Men will marry later – “settle down” adultery is frowned upon, men are punished more lightly than women
viii. After 1850 women (middle class) are not supposed to work, they should manage the household, men are the primary bread winners
ix. Women demanded better education
x. Childrearing becomes more important because kids now have a better chance of surviving, so you become more attached it. Few wet nurses, special immunizations from breastfeeding yourself
xi. Child raising books
xii. Children from the working class go to work sooner (when they reach adolescence)
IV. Fin du Siècle/ Belle Époque (1895-1914)
a. Better living, especially in nothern Europe (Germany, Britain, France) – wages are increasing while the price of food in decreasing. In UK, wages will almost double again
i. Sports kicked off – bicycling
ii. This will have an effect of fashion – women especially, looser clothing, got rid of the whale bone corsets
b. Pubs kicked off / taverns
c. Increased consumption, all this money spent on sports/ cafes and taverns department stores
d. Dance halls and music halls
e. Telephones, light bulbs, radio, automobiles, gramophone (record player), motion pictures
f. Government spending on education for children (1900- all children from 5-12 years were required to attend school in England) in France, 3-13
i. Huge increase in literacy – but men still had a higher literacy rate than women, people in the cities still had a higher literacy rates, people and western Europe still had higher literacy rates
ii. By 1900, the literacy rate in Germany was 99%, in Russia it was 25%
iii. At the end of primary school, girls were discriminated against, families could afford to send all their children to secondary education, so they sent the men (working class)
iv. Middle class – invested more in the women so they had better marriage prospects
V. Scientific Advances (science almost becomes a religion for some people)
a. Bacteria revolution -
i. Louis Pasteur (fermentation was caused by the growth of living organisms, which can be killed by heating it, reduction of food poisoning)
ii. Joseph Lister – antiseptic principal, Listerine, applied un surgery, they sterilized instrument, people were dying of infections
iii. Edward Jenner – pioneered vaccination (typhoid, cholera, small pox)
iv. Mendeleev – periodic table (1869)
v. Faraday – analyzes the principles of electro magnetism, develops the first dynamo (electrical generator)
vi. Comte – developed Sociology idea that you can define certain principles to regulate activity – trying to control society by regulating it
vii. Biology – Charles Darwin – evolution
1. Social Darwinism – Herbert Spencer (later becomes a justification of imperialism)
2. Huxley defended evolution
viii. Freud – geniuses of the 19th century – Marx, Darwin, Freud
1. Humans are irrational creatures, personalities defined by hidden feelings, repressed sexuality
ix. Marie Curie – radiation – husband Pierre, died of radiation poisoning
1. Rutherford – split the atom, realized that the atoms have nuclei
2. Max Plank – quantum theory - matter and energy might be two forms of the same thing
3. Einstein - does for physics what Darwin does for Bio and what Freud does for Psych – theory of Relativity – things like time and space are relative to the viewer, the only constant is the speed light
a. E=mc2 – it equates mass and energy = controversial
x. Three major scientific things = three major philosophical view
1. Darwin= undermines the bible version of human creation
2. Freud says that people are not rational undermines the Enlightenment
3. Einstein – refutes Newtonian physics – the very building blocks of the universe are relative = uncertainty in people’s minds
a. All this is shown in WWI – maybe we do give into our animal instincts
VI. Catholic challenges
a. In this time the catholic church finds itself under assault like it hasn’t been since the reformation
i. Nationalism is hurting it – it used to be nationality in itself almost
ii. Now people see the catholic church as being against nationalism (why should only be Italian popes, why should they tell, say, the French what to do)
b. Bismarck is Majorly against Catholicism
i. Kultur Kampf – there are two areas in Europe that are trying to become nations – Germany and Italy – as part of this they attack the Catholic church
1. The pope responds, in the most logical way possible, by attacking them
a. Pope Pius IX – Syllabus of errors (1864) – condemns liberalism and the unification of Italy
b. The Vatican council will then, six years later, issue the Doctrine of Papal Infallibility (it will only be repealed recently)
2. Pope Leo XIII – another counter reformation – Rerum Novarum (1891) trying to allow Catholics to participate in the politics of new liberal states (such as Germany) – he does condemn socialism and Marxism, defends private property (capitalism), workers should be paid a living wage, capitalists are responsible for providing this, supports laws that protect workers big turnaround from the beginning of the century
a. We start to catholic parties (CSU/CDU)
b. However, there is still a lowering of church attendance by the lower class
VII. Realism – more science, more rationality – see the world the way it really is
a. In part, a reaction to the revolutions of 1848
b. Literature
i. Balzac – a lot about coffee houses… wrote The Human Comedy – depicts urban society and grasping, like the jungle, dog eat dog, criticizing the brutality of Urban life
ii. Flaubert – Madam Bovary it shows the pettiness and the hypocrisy of the middle class
iii. Zola – Germinal depicts the hard life of minors in northern France
iv. George Elliot – (Mary Anne Evans) – criticizes the way classes exploit other classes
v. Thomas Hardy – Tess of the D’Urbervilles – a young woman from a lower class is abused by the son of her master and ends up getting killed for having premarital sex
vi. Tolstoy – fatalistic view of the world
vii. Scandinavia gives us Henry Ibsen – he started as a very unrealistic playwright (father of modern realism) worked together with Grieg (Pyre Gynt )
1. A dolls House – the woman walks out on her husband, is forced to change the ending
2. Ghosts – character dies of venereal disease
3. Hedda gobler – suicide
c. Sell artwork rather than patrons
i. France is once again the centre of the art world
ii. The realistic painters want to paint things the way they are
iii. Courbet – coined the term realism
iv. Millet – farmers, women harvesting
v. Daumier – painted “Third Class Carriage”
vi. Degas – “Laundry Girls Ironing”
vii. The artists did not stay in realistic mode, they got bored because of photography, so they moved into Impressionism
viii. Manet – moved into impressionism, got people all hot and bothered because of a couple of paintings “Luncheon of the Grass” – nude female with two clothed males and “Olympia” portrait, nude prostitute
VIII. Impressionism – because photography could take realistic pictures, so they tried to capture the moment, the impression.
a. Used light and the blurring if images, showed brush strokes
i. Monet
ii. Renoir
iii. Pissarro
b. Post- Impressionism Expressionism
i. People keep getting farther and farther out there (even though expressionism won’t be coined as a term until after WWI)
ii. Van Gogh
iii. Paul Gaugin – pioneered expressionistic techniques, famous especially for his paintings of the South Pacific (naked women on beaches) – very avant garde style
iv. Cezanne – started to move away from traditional 3D, realistic paintings to more 2D expressionist painting
v. The major avant garde painters, that go into the 20th century, prior to WWII
1. Matisse – lead a group of painters whose work were called expressionism, painted real objects, but were more interesting in color, line and form, so they messed them up, were called the “wild beasts” by the critics
2. Picasso – cubism, Spanish, geometric, zigzagging things, cuts things down into cubes and geometric patterns to emphasize them, rather than hide them
3. Braque – worked with Picasso, continues to develop cubism
4. Kandinsky – Russian, trends to go completely away from form, into colors, expression, goes beyond cubism
Ideologies and Revolutions (1815-1850)
Ideologies and Revolutions
The Age of Metternich (1815-1850)
I. Overview
a. Conservatism – dominated at the beginning of this era
i. Metternich was the Austrian conservative minister (wanted to return to old conservatism, Monarchy in France)
ii. Conservatives worried that the lower classes were too Liberal. Also worried about Nationalism because it is a tool that can be used to unite the two classes, also, nationalism could break up the Austro-Hungarian empire. Try to limit these two forces at the Congress.
b. Liberalism – unleashed by Napoleon trying to spread his ideas (France had two revolutions during this time (Bourbons overthrow (1830), republic on 1848)
c. Nationalism – greatest force for revolution because ethnic groups don’t like being controlled by other ethnic groups , UK and Russia are able to avoid nationalist revolution
d. Socialism – unhappy workers
e. These make up the pushes and pulls of the time period
f. Romanticism – nature, individualism, emotion, faith (link nationalism and liberalism)
II. Congress of Vienna
a. Putting humpty dumpty back together again restore social and political order Balance of Power the major powers in Europe didn’t agree, they didn’t want anyone to get an upper hand
b. They don’t like the idea of revolution so they want a monarchy
c. Issues:
i. Legitimacy
ii. Returning former ruling families to their place legitimacy (in the countries napoleon conquered)
iii. Compensation – limited at first, mainly in the form of land. England: wants more Naval bases (South Africa, Cyprus, Sri Lanka). Austrian gets Lombardi and Venetia as well as some of Poland, Russia gets Poland, Ukraine, Prussia get Poland too, the Rhineland and 3/5 of Saxony
iv. Balance of Power – rules:
1. End the Hapsburg holy roman empire: Create the German Confederation (Bund), consolidation, keeps some of the original reorganization of Napoleon, still under Austrian rule
2. England are the only ones who gain from this because they never really lost anything under Napoleon
d. Balance of power lasts until German unify, then WWI, it also underestimated the amount of French Nationalism, they didn’t realize just how much the revolution had altered the French Psychie
III. Concert of Europe (1815-1850’s), lasted until the Crimean War
a. Two major provisions and one proposal
i. Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, UK, and Austria) – if anyone gets out of hand they will step in to stop it. (pre-NATO) – poised to slap down the French, no Bonaparte will ever again rule France. They use this alliance to push conservatism, liberalism and nationalism are seen as threats to the status quo
ii. Congress System – meetings designed to figure out how to keep the status quo (only lasted until the 1820’s) Plan the collective security of Europe (UK pulled out)
iii. Tsar Alexander proposes a Holy Alliance between the three other members because they all had strong monarchies, it never really worked out
IV. Conservatism – fear that prompts the push of conservatism the French revolution
a. Supported by both ruling classes and by the bourgeoisie, they have something to lose. They are for stability, but against government intervention
b. Edmund Burke – reflections on the revolution in France defended inherited privileges in the British system , predicted anarchy in France as a result of the revolution
c. Metternich was afraid that the individual ethnicities in Austria would rebel and destroy his empire
i. Used their control over the German states to prevent nationalism there
ii. Carlsbad Diet – issues decrees cracking down on liberalism, especially in universities (went after the intellectual learning centers in Germany, it goes underground) censor any document that proposes German unification
1. Prussia also repress their liberals
iii. Conservatives in charge of Parliament, also suppressed liberalism
1. Corn laws – no importation of foreign grain (screws all but the rich), also suspends habeas corpus poor people upset, have rallies
Peter Loo Massacre - 11 died, police cracked down, press had a field day government cracks down of press, government bans mass meetings
iv. The most liberal place in all of Europe at this time was France
1. 1815 – white terror, royalists go around killing revolutionaries
2. Moderate royalist will be reelected into power in 1816
3. Louis XVIII – 1814-1824
4. Charles X takes the throne, 1829 – heir is murdered, used as excuse to crack down on rights
v. Spanish revolution crushed, 1823, another bourbon ruler on the Spanish throne
d. Russia – conservatism leads to oppression
i. Tsar Alexander, initially favored enlightened despotism, died in 1825 power vacuum in Russia uprising “Decembrist Uprising” (junior military officers, came from the upper class, opposed the autocratic government, first upper revolt wanted Alexander’s younger brother to assume the throne, Nicholas controls it and becomes the most autocratic turns Russia into a Police state, censorship, state sponsored terrorism, no representative assemblies at all, education is limited, university curriculum severely monitored
1. Intellectual liberals will be truly pissed, but are unable to get their act together: split into the Slavophil and the Westernizers
V. Liberalism – guarantee social liberties
a. Classical Liberalism – reformist, not revolutionary (john Lock), written constitution
i. Representative government (republican)
ii. Democratic – more radical
iii. Economics – 1776, Adam Smith writes the wealth of nations
1. True lassaiz faire – government neither help nor hinder
2. Bible of capitalism
3. Invisible hand of competition
iv. David Ricardo – wages will be lower if there are enough workers (iron law of wages)
v. Thomas Malthus – wages should not encourage population increase, war and famine would keep the carrying capacity
vi. Bentham – Utilitarianism – what is best for the majority is best
vii. John Stuart Mill – On Liberty - tyranny of the majority
viii. Liberals were somewhat successful, two revolutions in France, 10 different constitutions in the German states, reform measures in Britain, German student orgs.
VI. Nationalism – exceptionalsim – everyone thinks they are special
a. French started nationalism, although the people who articulate this philosophy are German. Johann Gottfried Herder – father of modern nationalism Volksgeist – evolves over centuries. These people should live together in s sovereign country
b. Fichte – German nationalism, superiority, criticism of the Jews (+1814)
c. Revolutions
i. 1820’s –
1. Spain, crushed by French troupes under the auspices of the three
Powers
2. Naples – Carbonari, ruled and pissed, Austria goes in to settle matters
3. Piedmont – another uprising is put down by Austrian troupes
4. Greek revolution – the big one, the one we’ve all been waiting for (1821-29) trying to break away from the Ottoman empire, powers accept Greece’s appeal to help Greece for their own devices
ii. 1830’s- backlash against conservatism
1. France - Louis XVIII dead, Charles abdicated, Louis Philippe
2. Italy – 1831-1832 – Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini inspires outbreaks in the northern states want to achieve national unification, Austria step in “Risorgimento”
3. German states – 1830-33 – university protests lead to temporary constitutions in several minor German, Metternich then does away with them
4. Belgium – 1830 – had been merged with the Dutch, there was resistance, July Revolution inspires them, revolt un Brussels, Dutch Defeated, forced to retreat by a combined French/British fleet, Belgium create a national constitution, 1839 – they become neutral territory
5. Poland – crushed by Tsar Nicholas I declared Organic Statute – Poland is an integral part of the Russian Empire (1832)
6. Prussia – most interesting, it is chafing because Austria is in control of the German states.
a. 1834 – Zollverein – Prussia joins with 17 of the German states and created a free trade zone
VII. Liberal Reform, England
a. 1820-30 – Tories were not united, some wanted liberal reform. (George Tanning and Robert Peele, he was the one who was responsible for standardizing the London Police Force )They also abandoned the Congress system in 1822 (tired of dealing with the other three powers) also reformed the Prisons, reformed the criminal code, even allowed membership in Labour Unions
i. Another aspect of liberal reforms at this time was Religious reforms. They repealed the Test Act of 1673, now non-Anglicans could hold public office.
ii. Catholic Emancipation Act - gave Catholics their full civil rights
b. George IV – asks the Whigs leader to form a new government in 1830, they take over parliament (supported by middle class, considered a mile stone in British history) Cholera epidemic
i. When the Whigs took office, they expanded the vote from 6% to 12% and they consolidated districts (rural districts had been blocking the house of lords because they were controlled by wealthy land owners, but the new boroughs in the industrial cities) the house of lords becomes very important in parliament
ii. Earl Gray – leader of the Whigs who and the new government
c. Labour Reform – 1830’s
i. 1832 – the Reforms Bill
ii. 1833 – Factory Act – helped with the problem of child labour, no child working under the age of 9, abolished slave labour in the British West Indies
iii. Wilberforce – driving force behind the abolition of slavery
iv. 1834- new poor law that required able bodied people who don’t have jobs to work in Work Houses
v. 1842 – Mines Act – prohibits child labour in the mines
vi. 1847 – 10 hour act – women and children
vii. Chartist Movement – more political power for the working class so they could improve their status - universal white male suffrage, secret ballots, no property qualifications, salaries for members of parliament, equal election districts, annual elections for parliament most they will eventually get
viii. 1846 – repeal the corn laws because of the Irish potato famine
ix. The only countries that weren’t affected by revolutions were Britain and Russia
1. Queen Victoria ascends the throne 1837- 1901
VIII. Revolutions of 1848
a. Caused by forces of nationalism and liberalism, economic dislocation and instability, Romanticism, only Russian and UK will avoid significant upheaval, absolutist conservative government and liberal government
b. Results: End of serfdom in Austria, universal suffrage in France, parliaments in German states, beginning of the push for German unification and in Italy
c. France – gets the ball rolling again with another little revolution, February Revolution, Working class was upset with the King Louis Philippe and his minster Guizot, King abdicated
i. Alfonse Lamartaine - Liberal who helped declare the second French republic
ii. Louis Blanc – too
d. Liberal capitalist and Socialists new assembly June Revolution
i. Cavaignac – General in the French Army who crushed the worker’s rebellion after assuming dictatorial powers – 10,000 dead
ii. Looses to Louis Napoleon as president of the republic, he declares himself emperor Napoleon III of the French Republic
e. Italy also has an uprising trying to end foreign domination, various rulers defeated, Mazzini declares the Italian Republic in 1849, supported by Garibaldi, pope forced to flee
i. Austrian general retakes Sardinia Piedmont and Lombardi and Venetia, pope restored by the French , Revolution failed, people in the countryside didn’t support it, the revolutionaries were NOT united, people who were moderate leaders feared radicalism and didn’t embrace the republic, weren’t so great at administrating
f. Revolutions in both Hungary and Bohemia, only 25% living in the Austrian empire were actually German
g. Louis Kossuth – leader of the oppressed Hungarians, demands independence, as to do the Czechs in Bohemia, Austrian Empire collapse, Metternich flees (1848) Hungarians army’s are in sight of Vienna but are defeated, get semi-independence in another 18 years, minorities are still not united, Russians send military aid
i. Prague Conference 1848 – Austro- Slavism. Autonomy of the minorities within the Austrian Empire this collapses because the minorities don’t particularly like each other, rebellion crushed by Austrian forces who occupied Bohemia
h. German states – liberals demand either union or constitutional government
i. Frankfurt Parliament – 1848 – combo of nationalist, liberal, romantic leaders n meet, call for elections and assembly of the all German states in the Bund, also want War with Denmark for Schleswig and Holstein, so Prussia declares war to get the areas
ii. Parliament presented a constitution with it emperor being Prussia’s Frederick IV. He says No… because he doesn’t want to be handed a crown from the gutter, he believes in the divine right of Kings, the constitution was Liberal! He wanted to be an absolutist ruler without limits to his power
iii. Austria will demand Prussian allegiance to the Bund Humiliation of Olmutz, drops his attempts to unify German states
i. Reasons for the Revolutions failing
i. Lack of organization
ii. Middle class feared working class radicalism
iii. Lack of planning and forethought
iv. Didn’t have the support of the countryside, they were urban
v. There is an underlying desire for Unification of Germany and Italy
vi. They don’t have much to show for their revolutions
IX. Romanticism 1800-1850, backlash against classicism, neo classicism
a. General characteristics
i. Emotion over Reason
1. Human senses
2. Passion
ii. Glorification of Nature, beautiful, wild ,untamed force, less of the human hand involved
iii. Reject the enlightenment view of precision
iv. Reject enlightenment view of the past, progress isn’t necessarily good, they like simplicity, turning back the clock, often drew on the middle ages for inspiration, chivalry, honor, revival of gothic architecture (houses of architecture)
v. Emphasize feeling
vi. Works will fight against poverty, slavery, industrialization
vii. Believe in personal freedom
b. Philosophical underpinning
i. Rousseau – society corrupted human nature. Materialism
1. Man has been diminished because he has been removed from nature
ii. Kant – human freedom
iii. French revolution as an inspiration
iv. Sturm und Drang – storm and stress, Germany, poems and plays of heavy emotional intensity
v. Haegel – another German, came up with the formula Thesis- antithesis- synthesis
vi. Fichte – saw a vision of Germany as a united romantic people
The Age of Metternich (1815-1850)
I. Overview
a. Conservatism – dominated at the beginning of this era
i. Metternich was the Austrian conservative minister (wanted to return to old conservatism, Monarchy in France)
ii. Conservatives worried that the lower classes were too Liberal. Also worried about Nationalism because it is a tool that can be used to unite the two classes, also, nationalism could break up the Austro-Hungarian empire. Try to limit these two forces at the Congress.
b. Liberalism – unleashed by Napoleon trying to spread his ideas (France had two revolutions during this time (Bourbons overthrow (1830), republic on 1848)
c. Nationalism – greatest force for revolution because ethnic groups don’t like being controlled by other ethnic groups , UK and Russia are able to avoid nationalist revolution
d. Socialism – unhappy workers
e. These make up the pushes and pulls of the time period
f. Romanticism – nature, individualism, emotion, faith (link nationalism and liberalism)
II. Congress of Vienna
a. Putting humpty dumpty back together again restore social and political order Balance of Power the major powers in Europe didn’t agree, they didn’t want anyone to get an upper hand
b. They don’t like the idea of revolution so they want a monarchy
c. Issues:
i. Legitimacy
ii. Returning former ruling families to their place legitimacy (in the countries napoleon conquered)
iii. Compensation – limited at first, mainly in the form of land. England: wants more Naval bases (South Africa, Cyprus, Sri Lanka). Austrian gets Lombardi and Venetia as well as some of Poland, Russia gets Poland, Ukraine, Prussia get Poland too, the Rhineland and 3/5 of Saxony
iv. Balance of Power – rules:
1. End the Hapsburg holy roman empire: Create the German Confederation (Bund), consolidation, keeps some of the original reorganization of Napoleon, still under Austrian rule
2. England are the only ones who gain from this because they never really lost anything under Napoleon
d. Balance of power lasts until German unify, then WWI, it also underestimated the amount of French Nationalism, they didn’t realize just how much the revolution had altered the French Psychie
III. Concert of Europe (1815-1850’s), lasted until the Crimean War
a. Two major provisions and one proposal
i. Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, UK, and Austria) – if anyone gets out of hand they will step in to stop it. (pre-NATO) – poised to slap down the French, no Bonaparte will ever again rule France. They use this alliance to push conservatism, liberalism and nationalism are seen as threats to the status quo
ii. Congress System – meetings designed to figure out how to keep the status quo (only lasted until the 1820’s) Plan the collective security of Europe (UK pulled out)
iii. Tsar Alexander proposes a Holy Alliance between the three other members because they all had strong monarchies, it never really worked out
IV. Conservatism – fear that prompts the push of conservatism the French revolution
a. Supported by both ruling classes and by the bourgeoisie, they have something to lose. They are for stability, but against government intervention
b. Edmund Burke – reflections on the revolution in France defended inherited privileges in the British system , predicted anarchy in France as a result of the revolution
c. Metternich was afraid that the individual ethnicities in Austria would rebel and destroy his empire
i. Used their control over the German states to prevent nationalism there
ii. Carlsbad Diet – issues decrees cracking down on liberalism, especially in universities (went after the intellectual learning centers in Germany, it goes underground) censor any document that proposes German unification
1. Prussia also repress their liberals
iii. Conservatives in charge of Parliament, also suppressed liberalism
1. Corn laws – no importation of foreign grain (screws all but the rich), also suspends habeas corpus poor people upset, have rallies
Peter Loo Massacre - 11 died, police cracked down, press had a field day government cracks down of press, government bans mass meetings
iv. The most liberal place in all of Europe at this time was France
1. 1815 – white terror, royalists go around killing revolutionaries
2. Moderate royalist will be reelected into power in 1816
3. Louis XVIII – 1814-1824
4. Charles X takes the throne, 1829 – heir is murdered, used as excuse to crack down on rights
v. Spanish revolution crushed, 1823, another bourbon ruler on the Spanish throne
d. Russia – conservatism leads to oppression
i. Tsar Alexander, initially favored enlightened despotism, died in 1825 power vacuum in Russia uprising “Decembrist Uprising” (junior military officers, came from the upper class, opposed the autocratic government, first upper revolt wanted Alexander’s younger brother to assume the throne, Nicholas controls it and becomes the most autocratic turns Russia into a Police state, censorship, state sponsored terrorism, no representative assemblies at all, education is limited, university curriculum severely monitored
1. Intellectual liberals will be truly pissed, but are unable to get their act together: split into the Slavophil and the Westernizers
V. Liberalism – guarantee social liberties
a. Classical Liberalism – reformist, not revolutionary (john Lock), written constitution
i. Representative government (republican)
ii. Democratic – more radical
iii. Economics – 1776, Adam Smith writes the wealth of nations
1. True lassaiz faire – government neither help nor hinder
2. Bible of capitalism
3. Invisible hand of competition
iv. David Ricardo – wages will be lower if there are enough workers (iron law of wages)
v. Thomas Malthus – wages should not encourage population increase, war and famine would keep the carrying capacity
vi. Bentham – Utilitarianism – what is best for the majority is best
vii. John Stuart Mill – On Liberty - tyranny of the majority
viii. Liberals were somewhat successful, two revolutions in France, 10 different constitutions in the German states, reform measures in Britain, German student orgs.
VI. Nationalism – exceptionalsim – everyone thinks they are special
a. French started nationalism, although the people who articulate this philosophy are German. Johann Gottfried Herder – father of modern nationalism Volksgeist – evolves over centuries. These people should live together in s sovereign country
b. Fichte – German nationalism, superiority, criticism of the Jews (+1814)
c. Revolutions
i. 1820’s –
1. Spain, crushed by French troupes under the auspices of the three
Powers
2. Naples – Carbonari, ruled and pissed, Austria goes in to settle matters
3. Piedmont – another uprising is put down by Austrian troupes
4. Greek revolution – the big one, the one we’ve all been waiting for (1821-29) trying to break away from the Ottoman empire, powers accept Greece’s appeal to help Greece for their own devices
ii. 1830’s- backlash against conservatism
1. France - Louis XVIII dead, Charles abdicated, Louis Philippe
2. Italy – 1831-1832 – Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini inspires outbreaks in the northern states want to achieve national unification, Austria step in “Risorgimento”
3. German states – 1830-33 – university protests lead to temporary constitutions in several minor German, Metternich then does away with them
4. Belgium – 1830 – had been merged with the Dutch, there was resistance, July Revolution inspires them, revolt un Brussels, Dutch Defeated, forced to retreat by a combined French/British fleet, Belgium create a national constitution, 1839 – they become neutral territory
5. Poland – crushed by Tsar Nicholas I declared Organic Statute – Poland is an integral part of the Russian Empire (1832)
6. Prussia – most interesting, it is chafing because Austria is in control of the German states.
a. 1834 – Zollverein – Prussia joins with 17 of the German states and created a free trade zone
VII. Liberal Reform, England
a. 1820-30 – Tories were not united, some wanted liberal reform. (George Tanning and Robert Peele, he was the one who was responsible for standardizing the London Police Force )They also abandoned the Congress system in 1822 (tired of dealing with the other three powers) also reformed the Prisons, reformed the criminal code, even allowed membership in Labour Unions
i. Another aspect of liberal reforms at this time was Religious reforms. They repealed the Test Act of 1673, now non-Anglicans could hold public office.
ii. Catholic Emancipation Act - gave Catholics their full civil rights
b. George IV – asks the Whigs leader to form a new government in 1830, they take over parliament (supported by middle class, considered a mile stone in British history) Cholera epidemic
i. When the Whigs took office, they expanded the vote from 6% to 12% and they consolidated districts (rural districts had been blocking the house of lords because they were controlled by wealthy land owners, but the new boroughs in the industrial cities) the house of lords becomes very important in parliament
ii. Earl Gray – leader of the Whigs who and the new government
c. Labour Reform – 1830’s
i. 1832 – the Reforms Bill
ii. 1833 – Factory Act – helped with the problem of child labour, no child working under the age of 9, abolished slave labour in the British West Indies
iii. Wilberforce – driving force behind the abolition of slavery
iv. 1834- new poor law that required able bodied people who don’t have jobs to work in Work Houses
v. 1842 – Mines Act – prohibits child labour in the mines
vi. 1847 – 10 hour act – women and children
vii. Chartist Movement – more political power for the working class so they could improve their status - universal white male suffrage, secret ballots, no property qualifications, salaries for members of parliament, equal election districts, annual elections for parliament most they will eventually get
viii. 1846 – repeal the corn laws because of the Irish potato famine
ix. The only countries that weren’t affected by revolutions were Britain and Russia
1. Queen Victoria ascends the throne 1837- 1901
VIII. Revolutions of 1848
a. Caused by forces of nationalism and liberalism, economic dislocation and instability, Romanticism, only Russian and UK will avoid significant upheaval, absolutist conservative government and liberal government
b. Results: End of serfdom in Austria, universal suffrage in France, parliaments in German states, beginning of the push for German unification and in Italy
c. France – gets the ball rolling again with another little revolution, February Revolution, Working class was upset with the King Louis Philippe and his minster Guizot, King abdicated
i. Alfonse Lamartaine - Liberal who helped declare the second French republic
ii. Louis Blanc – too
d. Liberal capitalist and Socialists new assembly June Revolution
i. Cavaignac – General in the French Army who crushed the worker’s rebellion after assuming dictatorial powers – 10,000 dead
ii. Looses to Louis Napoleon as president of the republic, he declares himself emperor Napoleon III of the French Republic
e. Italy also has an uprising trying to end foreign domination, various rulers defeated, Mazzini declares the Italian Republic in 1849, supported by Garibaldi, pope forced to flee
i. Austrian general retakes Sardinia Piedmont and Lombardi and Venetia, pope restored by the French , Revolution failed, people in the countryside didn’t support it, the revolutionaries were NOT united, people who were moderate leaders feared radicalism and didn’t embrace the republic, weren’t so great at administrating
f. Revolutions in both Hungary and Bohemia, only 25% living in the Austrian empire were actually German
g. Louis Kossuth – leader of the oppressed Hungarians, demands independence, as to do the Czechs in Bohemia, Austrian Empire collapse, Metternich flees (1848) Hungarians army’s are in sight of Vienna but are defeated, get semi-independence in another 18 years, minorities are still not united, Russians send military aid
i. Prague Conference 1848 – Austro- Slavism. Autonomy of the minorities within the Austrian Empire this collapses because the minorities don’t particularly like each other, rebellion crushed by Austrian forces who occupied Bohemia
h. German states – liberals demand either union or constitutional government
i. Frankfurt Parliament – 1848 – combo of nationalist, liberal, romantic leaders n meet, call for elections and assembly of the all German states in the Bund, also want War with Denmark for Schleswig and Holstein, so Prussia declares war to get the areas
ii. Parliament presented a constitution with it emperor being Prussia’s Frederick IV. He says No… because he doesn’t want to be handed a crown from the gutter, he believes in the divine right of Kings, the constitution was Liberal! He wanted to be an absolutist ruler without limits to his power
iii. Austria will demand Prussian allegiance to the Bund Humiliation of Olmutz, drops his attempts to unify German states
i. Reasons for the Revolutions failing
i. Lack of organization
ii. Middle class feared working class radicalism
iii. Lack of planning and forethought
iv. Didn’t have the support of the countryside, they were urban
v. There is an underlying desire for Unification of Germany and Italy
vi. They don’t have much to show for their revolutions
IX. Romanticism 1800-1850, backlash against classicism, neo classicism
a. General characteristics
i. Emotion over Reason
1. Human senses
2. Passion
ii. Glorification of Nature, beautiful, wild ,untamed force, less of the human hand involved
iii. Reject the enlightenment view of precision
iv. Reject enlightenment view of the past, progress isn’t necessarily good, they like simplicity, turning back the clock, often drew on the middle ages for inspiration, chivalry, honor, revival of gothic architecture (houses of architecture)
v. Emphasize feeling
vi. Works will fight against poverty, slavery, industrialization
vii. Believe in personal freedom
b. Philosophical underpinning
i. Rousseau – society corrupted human nature. Materialism
1. Man has been diminished because he has been removed from nature
ii. Kant – human freedom
iii. French revolution as an inspiration
iv. Sturm und Drang – storm and stress, Germany, poems and plays of heavy emotional intensity
v. Haegel – another German, came up with the formula Thesis- antithesis- synthesis
vi. Fichte – saw a vision of Germany as a united romantic people
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